of such an agile animal as the Octopus, had not nature furnished the former with the means of taking good hold of it. It is interesting that the allied genera Ziphius and Hyperoodon, of the Northern hemisphere, feed also on similar species of cuttle-fish, as I learn from a paper of Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum (‘Proceedings Zoological Society, 1868,’ p. 422). Also, the Sperm Whales are said to feed almost exclusively upon the same voracious animal, which, by its agility and organization, is so well adapted to make great havoc amongst the smaller inhabitants of the sea. And, as Dr. Gray justly observes, it proves, at the same time, that these cephalopods, although apparently of rare occurrence, must in many localities be very numerous, as it would otherwise be impossible to understand how they could furnish those huge whales with sufficient food.

When I proceeded to the beach, the animal was still lying in the surf, partly covered by sand, but still intact. I measured its length exactly, and found it to be 30 feet 6 inches, from the tip of the nose to the end of the lobes of the tail. The colour of the whole animal was of a deep velvety black, with the exception of the lower portion of the belly, which had a greyish colour. The tail was 6 feet 6 inches broad, and had the usual two falcate lobes. The dorsal fins were situated near the neck, a little above the middle of the body, and were 17 inches broad, and 19 inches long. They had a triangular form, and one of them was buried in the sand when I saw the animal first. The dorsal fin was unfortunately destroyed when I first inspected the whale, so that I cannot describe its form and position from my own observations; but Mr. Walker told me that it was small, had the usual falcate form, and was situated not far from the tail.

I may here observe, that from the form of the skull and some other characteristics, it appears evident that this whale is the Berardius Arnuxii of Duvernoy, of which a specimen was caught in 1846, in Akaroa harbour, the skull of which, of a length of four feet, is at present in the Imperial Museum, in Paris. The animal to which it belonged is described as having been thirty-two feet long, and possessing a large dorsal fin, with a large boss or hump in front of it. As putrefaction and the cutting off of the blubber had greatly changed the outlines of the animal, I could not observe whether it possessed the larger boss in front. Mr. Walker did not speak of it when he gave me a description of the animal as it appeared when captured. However, as the figure of the skull, as given by Duvernoy in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ and copied into Dr. Gray's ‘British Museum Catalogue of Seals and Whales,’ is identical with that of our own specimen, I do not hesitate to state that both belong to the same species. It also seems to me that this whale is very local, probably inhabiting only the coast of New Zealand, and perhaps the regions south of it, because, as far as I can find, it has never been observed elsewhere. It has without doubt not been met with on the coasts of Australia, or it would not have passed unnoticed, as, amongst others, the energetic director of the Australian Museum, Gerh. Krefft, F. L. S., has not observed it. I may here state that the form of the skull is very peculiar, reminding one strongly of that of a dolphin.

There seems to be nothing known of this peculiar whale, except its external appearance and its skull, and it is, therefore, a matter of congratulation to us, that we shall be able to supply all the details of its osteological characteristics, which are peculiar in many respects.

The specimen in our possession was evidently a young animal, because all the disc-like epiphyses of the vertebræ are still detached. The same is the case with the epiphyses of the limb-bones, which are not yet united with them; also, the sutures of the cranium are not yet obliterated. The beginning of coalescence is, however, to be observed in the seven cervical vertebræ, of which

• ought to contemplate not the instruction of the members of a particular class of society in the higher branches; but the providing of the means of the best and highest possible education for as many as possible of all classes of society. This was the original object of the older Universities of Europe, and we cannot do better than return to it.

• (3.)

  The third question concerns the immediately practical nature of any proposed scheme. Now, it will not be expected that the colony should send forth, at once, a completely equipped professoriate, prepared, Minerva-like, for all requisite undertakings. But it is possible to inaugurate a good system, to establish a certain portion of it, and to make provision for the whole. Our circumstances are peculiarly favourable to such a gradual method of procedure. The youth of the colony is not prepared to avail itself of a full course, but it may be greatly benefitted by provision being made for establishing certain branches of instruction without delay. And this is further peculiarly the time when reserves can be made from the public lands of the various Provinces as permanent endowments. These two points seem of themselves a sufficient vindication of any attempt, such as the present, to draw public attention to the subject.

We will first of all address ourselves to a brief sketch of the University system.

Many of the difficulties which have often beset public questions in New Zealand, might be avoided in this case, by distributing the various colleges constituting the University, instead of congregating them all in one place. Let us imagine for a moment the effect which would be produced, if the several colleges of Oxford were distributed among so many counties of England, say in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, Devonshire, Hampshire; and if their principal men were assembled at some central point such as Oxford, or occasionally moved from place to place, for conducting examinations, granting degrees, and for other University purposes. Such is the scheme which seems best fitted for this colony. Let each province be left to establish and endow its own college, appoint its own professors, and fix its own course of instruction, subject to certain general instructions and regulations as prescribed by the General (Colonial) Government. Let there be a general council of the University, elected for the most part by the graduates of the colleges, but with one or two members elected by the undergraduates, or students, of each college, and with a permanent president and vice-president. To this council would belong the power of initiating such changes as from time to time might require to be effected in the laws and government of the University, and also of deciding upon such questions of dispute as might arise from time to time in any of the colleges, between the professors, or between professors, graduates, and students.

Let there further be a senate, composed of a chancellor, vice-chancellor, a certain proportion of the professors from each college, and a certain number appointed by the votes of the council. To this body let there be entrusted the necessary powers for making examinations, granting degrees, and similar purposes.

A quinquennial visitation of the colleges and the senate, conducted by a board specially appointed for that purpose, and named by the council, would tend greatly to preserve and promote healthy and vigorous life throughout the whole establishment.

Into the question of the appointment of professors it is unnecessary to enter; especially, as there is no reason why the same exact method should be observed in every college. But as a general rule it might be well ultimately to place a considerable, if not the chief, part of the power in the hands of the graduates.

It remains for us to consider the subjects and the method of instruction.

I. In discussing the subjects to be taught, the first and most important topic that meets us is the place to be accorded to languages, and especially to the languages of ancient Greece and Rome. No one who has a desire to promote the highest culture in himself or others, will seek to exclude these languages from a full system of education. Besides the arguments which are usually adduced in their favour, there are two which appear to be of pre-eminent authority. One of these is, that the civilization of these two countries is the only one which we can definitely trace from its early dawn, throughout a splendid thought varied career, right onward to its final disappearance amid the clouds of luxury, depravity, and barbarian invasion. The history of no other nations presents us with an account so full in all its details, so complete as a whole, of the growth and decay of the principles of art, philosophy, law, and political action, diffused throughout whole generations of a social system, and expiring with it: and the world, it is to be hoped, will never see the like again. The other main argument in favour of the classic tongues is found in the important use which is made of them, as forming together a sort of common language for scientific men, and affording the basis of one common scientific nomenclature. From the countless names of the ever-increasing lists of botany, upwards, to the words which describe the newest and most important discoveries, such as the electric telegraph, palæontology, seismology and the wonders of the solar spectrum, we are indebted to Greek and Latin for terms which are universally intelligible among scientific men of different countries, and which interfere with the genius and tendencies of no living language.

The admission of the classic languages, then, into every system of education, which aims at either completeness or high culture, may be regarded as placed beyond all question. But the grounds on which they are admitted, and the kind of study of which they will form the objects, may be said to have undergone a complete revolution. Languages may be acquired and mastered, either on account of their usefulness as instruments of thought, and of the literary and philosophic treasures which are found in them, or as objects of interest in themselves, means of disciplining the mind, and permanent, crystallized records (I know not how otherwise I can express the idea) of a certain cast of national life and thought. For the sake of this second class of objects, it may be most desirable and necessary that the minutiæ of a language be completely mastered, and the power of composing both prose and verse in it be fully acquired. But Greek and Latin have no longer the exclusive claims to be so studied, which they once possessed.

The science of language in general, and of universal grammar, as illustrated in the works of Bopp and Max Müller, at once supplants them, and includes them as a part of a more comprehensive scheme; while the Sanscrit of India, and the Anglo-Saxon from which our own language is derived, have as certain, though not as great, a claim upon our attention.

What knowledge may be required of the minutiæ of idiomatic Greek and Latin, ought therefore to be relegated to the preparatory schools; while the University ought in its several colleges to assume this knowledge as acquired, and instead of professorships for instruction in Latin phrases, Greek dialects, and metrical niceties, should establish professorships of the combined study of the history and languages of ancient Greece and Rome. The works of Grole, Stuart Mill, and Rawlinson, indicate sufficiently what the course of study might be in this department.

This short explanation may perhaps have paved the way for the account of such a course of study as ought to be pursued.

But here two principles require to be steadily kept in view, and used to

guide us in regard to the order in which the different branches of study ought to be taken up:

• 1.

  Those studies which are most difficult, either from their nature or by reason of the complexity of their objects, ought to be reserved to the last.

• 2.

  The natural progress of development observed by the mental faculties themselves, ought to be followed as far as possible.

As a general rule, then, languages would come first in order, then sciences of observation (or natural history in its various branches); next the material sciences of induction and deduction, or those sciences which examine the changes which take place in material bodies, and the forces by which those are produced, such as the departments of natural philosophy and chemistry. At the same time, mathematics, or the science of abstract number and quantity, ought to be pursued.

Thereafter would come mental and moral science, and lastly social science in its two great departments of history and political economy.

According to these views the staff of professors in each college, which attempted to give a complete scheme of education, would take up the following subjects in their order:

• I.

  The history and languages of Greece and Rome.

• II.

  Languages and universal grammar.

Under these two heads it is almost needless to say that a very great variety would be afforded both as to subjects and mode of treatment. Along with a general and rapid view of the whole field, special authors would be selected in the first case, and special languages or families of languages in the second.

• III.

  Natural history, in its various branches of mineralogy, geology, hydrology, meteorology, botany, and zoology.

• IV.

  Mathematics.

• V.

  Natural philosophy and chemistry, including under the first term somatology, or the doctrine of the general properties of bodies; mechanical philosophy, or the dynamics and statics of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies; electricity and magnetism, optics, astronomy.

• VI.

  Mental and moral philosophy, or psychology and ethics.

• VII.

  English language and literature.

• VIII.

  Logic and rhetoric.

• IX.

  Sociology, in the historic and dogmatic form, that is, as modern history and political economy, and jurisprudence. (Hallam, Mill, Austin).

It will be observed that according to this arrangement we have the various branches of study set in distinct groups, and according to a definite, and, it would seem, a natural plan.

We take first of all languages, the great instruments of thought. Then we turn to physical science and mathematics, in their several divisions, when the mind is exercised and assisted by the sensible forms or representations of things.

Thereafter the mind is directed to a much higher, but much more difficult study, the study of its own faculties and laws.

Following these come what may be termed the practical application and realization of the principles hitherto acquired, in a consideration of the English language and literature, the methods of reasoning and persuasion, and the historical and formal discussion of the great problems of life.

The question which naturally suggests itself on review of these departments of study is, ‘How far, and to what extent, may we contemplate the establishment of such a number of professorships, as might, even in a few years, afford to the youth of this province the advantages of, at least, a portion of this course?’ It is very evident that, in time, the number of these

drought being induced in most of our main rivers by the destruction of the bush.

There is more liability to such a contingency occurring in the smaller streams, and perhaps in the East Coast rivers, and in some of the Wairarapa rivers, where the country is more scantily furnished with forest.

I recollect in the dry summer of 1863–4, observing both the Whareama and the Taueru rivers to have nearly ceased running, consisting of a chain of pools connected by a very small run of water between them.

Also the Aohanga river, at a place well inland where it falls perpendicularly over a ledge of overhanging rock for a height of about sixty feet, seemed at that time a mere thread of water, which the gusts of wind at times dissipated into spray before it reached the river bed below.

On such rivers the preservation of the bush about their upper courses, and on their feeders, becomes an object of importance.

It will thus be seen, from the table of areas, that the Manawatu and the Ruamahanga are the most extensive and important river systems in the part of the province under consideration, yet the areas drained by them differ much in character, and the rainfall over them is affected by different meteorological influences.

The Ruamahanga, or Wairarapa area, has much more open country in it than the other, and its supply is derived from the rain falling to the eastward, only, of the main dividing range of the Tararua.

It gets most of its water directly from the eastern side of this range, by the head of the Ruamahanga itself, by the Waipoua, the Waingawa, the Waiohine, and the Tauherenikau, which latter falls into the lake.

It also gets the drainage from the eastern side of the Rimutaka range, by many streams chiefly discharging into the lake.

By the Tauheru and its tributaries it drains a large extent of elevated hilly land, more or less open, lying to the N. E. of the Wairarapa valley.

By the Huangarua, the Dry river, the Rahohuru, the Turanganui, and many small streams, it drains the more open country lying on the west side of the watershed between the lower part of the Wairarapa valley and the East Coast. The melting of the snow in summer affects it by the rivers running from the Tararua mountains, and this probably to a greater extent than occurs in the Manawatu area.

One noticeable feature in the Ruamahanga is, that it discharges itself, in the first place, into the Wairarapa lake, and flows out of it again not far from where it enters, with the addition of the waters collected in the lake by streams falling into it directly. The river, after a course of a few miles, flows into the lower or smaller lake, which is divided from Palliser Bay by a narrow belt of beach, through which the river flows into the sea by a channel which sometimes is closed entirely by the action of the heavy surf in Palliser Bay, and then the water being dammed back fills the lakes, and floods a large area of low marshy land about their margins, until the accumulated water again forces a passage into the sea, when the lakes subside and relieve the adjoining low levels of the surplus water.

The nature of the passage into the sea of this river has withheld from the Wairarapa the advantages of a navigable river, notwithstanding the large area drained, and the numerous and large tributaries of the Ruamahanga.

The state of this area has been much modified by its long occupation by European settlers; and the substitution of grasses for the growth of bush, fern, and scrub, to a large extent, must affect the rapidity with which the rainfall finds its way to the streams and rivers.

The area drained by the Manawatu system of rivers, on the other hand, is still nearly in a state of nature, except what change the native occupants

have affected, which would not seem to be much, in regard to any effect produced on the subject now under consideration.

This river and its tributaries present several interesting features.

The main river itself penetrates, by a narrow rocky gorge of picturesque scenery, the main dividing range of this part of the island, and separates it into the Ruahine and the Tararua mountains.

In this gorge there occur several reaches of still, deep water, and as the view is shut in at both ends by the winding course, the traveller seems to float in his canoe in a rock-bound mountain lake, with grey lichened cliffs, overhung with ferns and shrubs, and steep wooded slopes, rising above them. These quiet reaches are separated by dangerous rapids, full of boulders and rocks.

Both above and below the gorge the country is lower, and the character of the river is a rapid course over wide shingle beds, and this makes the change into the gorge more striking.

This river takes the rainfall of both sides of the southern end of the Ruahine range; for twenty-five miles on the east side, by the portion of the Manawatu proper, which runs in the Province of Hawke's Bay; and for thirty miles on the west side by the River Puhangina, which has a course almost parallel with the range, and joins the Manawatu only some one and a half miles to the west side of the gorge; and also by the sources of the Oroua to the north of the head of the Puhangina.

The Manwatu also takes the rainfall of both sides of the northern end of the Tararua range; for thirty miles on the east side by the Mongahao river, which runs almost parallel to the range, and joins the Manawatu only a mile or two to the east of the gorge, and also by streams falling into the Forty-mile bush rivers from the hills south of the head of the Mongahao; and for twenty miles of the west side of the range, by the Tokomaru river, and the Kahuterawa, and other large streams falling into the Manawatu on its southern bank. It also gets the drainage of the table-land of the Forty-mile bush, by the Makakahi, Mangatainoko, and other streams falling into the Teraumea, —which joins the Manawatu to the east of the gorge; —and by the Teraumea river, which rises on the east side of the Puketoi range, it gets the rain falling on both sides of the southern end of the Puketoi range; and by the Waitawhiti, the Ihuraua, and other streams it drains a part of the high lands adjoining the heads of the Whareama and the Taueru rivers, which both flow to the eastward part of the province.

By the numerous rivers and streams flowing into the Oroua from both sides, into the Puhangina from the west, and into the north side of the Manawatu itself to the west of the gorge, the rainfall over an extensive flat and table country between the Ruahine range and the sea coast also finds its way to the sea by the Manawatu.

Drawing its supply from such an extensive area, exposed to so much variety of climatic influences, it would seem that we need not expect all its tributaries to be flooded at one time; as the north-west rains will affect the Oroua, Puhangina, and streams to the west of the dividing range, while the south-east rains will flood the rivers on the eastern side.

The south-east or south-west rains, however, produce the heaviest floods, as the rain-drift flies along the line of the main range, and supplies both slopes at once, as well as probably falling more copiously on the area to the east of the range, and on the southern end of the Puketoi mountains, while the north-west rains striking more transversely to the line of the main range, probably fall more heavily on the western slopes than on the eastern.

The northern end of the Tararua, falling in height as it approaches the gorge, does not contribute much water from summer melting of snow, but

some supply of this nature is probably derived from the Ruahine at the sources of the Oroua river.

The whole area drained by the Manawatu being 1,171,200 acres, we find the very large proportion of over 1,000,000 acres to be bush-covered, also there is much flat country, so floods neither rise nor run off so quickly as in an open country. The dense vegetation of the bush retains a large quantity of the rainfall, and the ranges themselves are chiefly bush, and not very precipitous in general character.

For instance, on the Tirohanga hill-track, from the Manawatu to the Forty-mile bush, passing over the Tararua range, after attaining on elevation of about 1200 feet, we find nearly three miles flat before the ascent to the summit is made; several streams flow through this flat, and the ground has a thick, spongy stratum on the surface of roots, moss, and soil.

Similar comparatively level tracts, no doubt, exist at many places on the hills at considerable elevations; and thus the water falling on them by no means necessarily finds its way rapidly to the lower levels and the main river bed. From these causes more water must be taken away by absorption and evaporation, than at first might be supposed.

One feature in the course of the Manawatu, as of other similar rivers, is the numerous old water-courses abandoned by the river, and now forming semi-circular shaped lagoons of uniform width in the flat bush country.

These are found at intervals in a belt of half a mile to a mile and a half in width, on both sides of the river.

They have formed old river beds, cut through at the neck by the current, and the ends silted up by the deposits brought down in floods. This process still goes on, general extensive bends having been cut off within my own knowledge, as at Raukawa, and near the mouth of the Tokomaru.

A kind of balance is thus probably kept up between the speed and wearing power of the current, and the nature of the soil acted on by it, so that the total length of the river course along its numerous windings, maintains a mean from time to time; the formation of a long bend by the stream eating into the banks at one place, being counterbalanced by the cutting through the neck of a peninsula at another.

Some of these lagoons are over a mile long, and form fine sheets of water. They are mostly filled in heavy freshets, by the water backing up the stream flowing from their lower ends, and they, together with a large extent of low land subject to floods, for some miles above the junction of the Oroua, act as storing reservoirs for some of the surplus waters, as also do two large open swampy tracts whose surface is about the level of high floods, —one on the south side, called Makurerua, of some 15,000 acres, and the other lower down on the north side, called Ohotuiti, of some 7000 acres, and both with many shallow lagoons in their area. These are of rich soil, and when drained, of which they are capable of being, will form important flax-growing and meadow lands.

The large extent of sand and gravel deposits also, no doubt, absorbs and discharges gradually a large part of the rainfall, and of the waters brought down by river floods.

Differing from the Ruamahanga, the Manawatu is navigable for many miles from its entrance, to vessels of six or eight feet draft of water, which the bar at the mouth allows to enter, and the flood tide, when there is no fresh in the river, gives an upward current for fifteen or sixteen miles from the mouth.

The course of the Oroua gives a good section of the land lying to the west of the Ruahine range. For ten or fifteen miles of its lower course, it divides the open sandy country of the coast from the alluvial bush land, and here its

current is not so rapid, and its channel is narrow, muddy, and canal-like. Above this it becomes wider and more rapid, with shingle beds, and the banks show gravel deposits, which increase in height as it is ascended, and in the upper course cliffs of 100 feet to 200 feet high, washed by the river, show horizontal well-marked layers of sand, gravel, and clay, with marine shells. These beds preserve their horizontal position until the spurs of the range are approached, when they show a decided dip to the west, in parts.

About seventy to eighty miles, by the winding course, from its junction with the Manawatu, the Oroua cuts through a spur by a gorge faced by cliffs of rock, about 150 feet high, and nearly perpendicular, and close to here the first hard rock was observed, coming up the course.

The channel here is full of boulders and rocks, and the run is rapid. Looking through this gorge, however, in the direction of the range, the same horizontal strata of sand, gravel, and clay, are again seen in the high river bank; and it is probable the river extends a long way further into the main range, as its volume here seems quite as great as in its lower course, showing, at least, that its main supply comes from the hills surrounding its source in the Ruahine.

I have not attempted to estimate the quantity of water discharged by these rivers, although an approximation might be made from the estimated rainfall over the areas drained, and allowing for absorption and ovaporation; yet in the absence of observations on the actual volume of the rivers, at different periods of level of water, such an estimate would not be satisfactory, and there are not yet any observations of the local rainfall on these ranges and extensive table lands.

The following notes on the route from the Manawatu river to Masterton, through the forty-mile bush, from a journey undertaken by the author in 1868, indicate the nature of this very important track, which might be opened up with a small outlay.

November 17th, 1868—Left Foxton and rode some twenty miles to Kai-ranga, on the Manawatu river. Left horses here and crossed river to south bank; walked four miles over a gradually rising country, and camped at foot of first rise of main range, on the Kahuterawa stream: this is a considerable height above the sea, probably 100 to 200 feet.

18th—Commenced ascent of Tararua range: top of first rise at Tiro-hanga is about 1200 feet above where we left this morning; goes on level for some way, then a rise of 200 feet more at six and three-quarter miles from the Manawatu, again a rise of 490 feet to summit at Tipakirikiri, which is thus 1800 to 1900 feet above foot of range, at camp this morning. Fine view from here over Tongariro, Manawatu, and Rangitikei country, Ruapehu and some of the Forty-mile bush. Descended to foot of range, 1440 feet. Thence to Mongahao river, descending 280 feet further, or in all 1700 feet. from summit to Forty-mile bush country. From the Manawatu by this track to the Mongahao river is twelve miles, passable for horses; cut by Mr. Carkeek, Assistant Surveyor, in 1868. The track stops at Mongahao. Diverged down river a little, and took track to Tutækara clearing and native pa—about four miles.

19th—Followed on the old native track (from Ahuriri to Wairarapa) about four miles to Te Hawero clearing—level country. The track from Manawatu might join here, and there is an old track from here to Alfredtown. Four and a half miles further crossed Mangatainoko river: country level for some distance. At, say, eight and a half miles from Te Hawero track rises on a ridge, about 550 feet, and then falls with a good descent 220 feet. Then across a table-land which I estimate some 1100 feet above the sea. Camped about fourteen and a half miles from Te Hawero.

2nd. There was the apparatus required to lift the vessel from this floating base.

For the first purpose four pontoons were planned with the following dimensions: two of them were 95 feet long on top, 91 feet long at bottom, 14 feet wide at top, 12 ½ feet wide at bottom, and 8 feet deep. The other two were 85 feet long on top, and 81 feet long at bottom, and of the same breadth and depth as the first two; strongly framed, decked, planked, and caulked, and with three watertight bulkheads in each.

The pontoons were built by contract, at Picton, of N. Z. white pine.

These four pontoons, if sunk to a depth of 6 feet, would represent a displacement of 775 tons nearly, and if totally submerged, of some 1050 tons; thus allowing an ample margin for the weight of the sunken vessel, and also for that of the necessary men, tools, and gear, besides their own weight.

In working, it was found that when the weight came on, they had a displacement of 5 feet in depth, and it was calculated that out of this about 400 tons was due to the weight of the wreck under water, and the remainder to that of the pontoons themselves, with the workmen and gear.

The iron work for the lifting apparatus was designed and made by Mr. Seagar, at his works in Wellington.

The lifting apparatus may be described, generally, as consisting of forty-four long iron rods, with hooks at bottom to catch in the circular openings, or ports, in the sides of the vessel—twenty-two upon each side. (See plate XII.) The upper ends of these rods led up to the pontoons, and were attached to screws on the top of each rod for raising the weight.

More particularly, —each of these rods was of 1 ¼ inch diameter round iron. This was equal to take a strain of sixteen tons each, or in all 700 tons. The rods were divided into links twelve feet long, with oval eyes, connected by short double links, 9 inches long, of 3 ½ in. by ⅝ in. iron, with 1 ¼ in. pins. In working it was observed that it would have been an improvement to have had the rods in shorter links, say of four feet each.

The hook at bottom was made of 3 ¾ in. by 1 in. iron, and thickened where it took hold of the port-hole to 2 ½ inches, and an ingenious slide or stop took hold of the lower side of the port-hole, and supported the hook after it was fixed, thus preventing it slipping out when the upward strain was relaxed, and this was found effectually to keep the hook in position. This stop was of 2 ½ in. by ½ in. iron, with a slot in it, to enable it to move along two pinching screws through the side of the hook. (See sketch.) This stop was fastened by the diver as soon as he got the hook in its place. When working, a short length of chain, 3 feet to 4 feet long, was attached between the hook and the lower end of the suspending rod.

The upper end of each suspending rod had two shorter links of 4 feet each, and above these, and forming the upper length of suspension bars, was the fleeting link, which was double and of flat iron, each piece being 3 feet 5 in. long by 4 in. by ⅝ in., and pierced with 1 ½ in. holes, four and a half inches apart, so as to admit of adjustment of the length of the bars, when fleeting the screws to take a fresh lift. These fleeting links were attached at the top to the bottom of the lifting screw.

The lifting screws were of 2 ⅜ inches diameter iron, and screwed for 2 feet 3 ½ inches in length, and had four threads to an inch. Each screw was turned by a spanner, or lever, 5 feet long, of 1 ½ inch round iron, moved by two, or sometimes three, men, and with an eye fitting over the nut. The nut worked upon double washers or plates, bearing on a wooden block which rested on the cross logs of the pontoons, as will presently be described. These washers were adapted to the special nature of the work to be done.

The lifting of a movable body at such a depth, acted on by currents, and

the pontoons themselves affected by currents and winds, must involve a certain amount of swinging motion, horizontally or laterally; besides the tops of the rods were not all vertically over the hooks in the port-holes.

To allow for this the upper washer of wrought-iron was rounded in the bottom, and rested and titted in a hollow recess in the cast-iron washer or plate, which hollow was turned so as to fit accurately to the bottom of the upper washer. This then allowed to the upper washer, the screw, the nut, and top of rod, a certain amount of oscillation, to suit which the aperture in the cast-iron washer, or plate, was beveled out somewhat towards the lower edge. (See sketch).

A set of counter-balance weights had also to be provided to carry the weight of the rods, when adjusting or fleeting the screws. These weights were carried by ropes attached to the upper part of the rods, and passing over sheaves placed in the cross logs which rested on the pontoons. The weight was made sufficient to balance the weight of rod, and this arrangement allowed the pontoons to rise and fall with the tide.

The four pontoons were placed two on each side of the sunken vessel, so that a space was left between them over the wreck, about one foot more than the breadth of the “Taranaki.”

Twenty-two sets of cross beams, each carrying two lifting rods, rested on the pontoons, and passed across over the wreck. These beams were double, consisting each of two pieces, each piece 18 in. by 9 in., placed five inches apart, and bolted together in three places by three-quarter inch bolts.

The length of the beams was from 48 feet to 53 feet, according to position. They were of Kahikatea, or N. Z. white pine. They proved strong enough for the strain, but with nothing to spare, deflecting a foot in the middle when the strain came on them. Two of them sprung in the early part of the work, but they were of lighter scantling, and were strengthened and used afterwards.

On each of these beams, and over the inner side of the pontoons so as to plumb the sunken vessel's sides, were placed two blocks of hard wood (Rata), each 15 in. by 5 in., and 2 feet long, with a hole 5 inches square for the lifting rod to pass through, and on this block was placed the plate, or washer, already described, carrying the upper washer and nut of the lifting screw. (See sketch.)

On an average, fifty-four men were employed.

The mode of screwing up a lift was, first to screw up all the screws on one side for one foot, or half the length of lift, then proceed to the other side and screw up two feet, or the full length of the lift, and then go back to the first side, and screw up the remaining half of the lift for this side.

The mode of fleeting the screws was, to begin to fleet simultaneously the foremost screw on each of the two pontoons upon one side, and the after-most screw on each of the two pontoons on the other side; and then, when these had been adjusted and were being tightened up, the screws next but one to the four already fleeted were slacked off, and so on, till all the screws were gone through and got ready for a fresh lift. Thus no one log had the strain taken off both of its ends at one time. In this operation eight sets of lifting rods were relieved of the weight at one time, and the weight of the wreck was then borne safely by the remaining thirty-six rods.

They could fleet and screw up twice in one day, taking about an hour to fleet, and three hours to heave up a lift.

Two divers were employed, who had the arduous task of fixing the hooks under such a depth of water, opening the ports, cutting away the woodwork, and other jobs, such as sending up the anchors and chains, etc.

Their labour was much facilitated by the use of a box, or cage, 6 feet by

3 feet, formed of iron bars placed openly, and having a wooden floor. This was slung from the pontoons, and let down where the divers were to work, and in it they stood when at work. After hooking on the lifting hook to the port, the diver fixed the stop, or slide, to prevent the hook falling out, and also made fast the rod to the ship's rail above, to steady it.

It was at first intended to make use of the lifting power of the tide, and assist it by filling the pontoons with water, and pumping them out as the tide rose. For this purpose valves were put in the bottom of the pontoons, and pumps provided.

This plan was put in operation for some time, until, as the vessel was hauled ahead, it was found that the bank was so steep that she was liable to slip back when allowed to rest on the bottom. At one place the stern was observed to have thirty feet more water over it than the bows had, so sudden was the incline, and for a short distance near the top of the bank, the inclination was nearly 1 to 1.

It was found necessary after this to keep her always suspended or carried from the pontoons, and to trust to the lifting power afforded by working the screws.

This steep bank added much to the difficulties to be overcome, and the vessel was brought gradually side on to it, so as to bring her more to a level. This was done by lifting at each lift the stern more than the bows, and hauling it round at same time up the slope of the bank.

As the vessel was lifted she was hauled ahead by being made fast by a chain cable from her bow to the “Ladybird,” which steamer was hauled ahead from time to time, as required, to moorings placed in shore.

The position of the wreck may be briefly described.

She lay on a comparatively level bottom of soft clay and shells, with a rise of six feet in the length of the vessel towards the bows, and the stern was sunk about seven feet in the mud; a great weight of mud was piled upon the poop deck, probably thrown over the stern when she went down. At the stern the depth of water was 17 ½ fathoms, or 105 feet, at high-water.

This nearly level bottom extended ahead for about sixty feet, when the foot of a bank was reached. This bank rose at a rate of thirty feet in two hundred feet, or in about the length of the vessel, for a distance ahead of some five hundred feet, when the inclination increased to a rise of twenty-seven feet in thirty feet, for a short distance up to the top of the bank, over which there was a depth of twenty-one feet at high-water.

On getting over this bank the depth increased to twenty-four feet for some distance, and then gradually shoaled in shore for a length of six hundred feet, or thereabouts, farther.

The rise of tide at springs was 4 feet 6 inches, and at neaps 1 foot 6 inches, and there was a current on the ebb which greatly interfered with the operations of the divers for two-thirds of the ebb. The position, however, was landlocked and sheltered from any waves or swell of consequence.

A notice of some of the damages sustained by the vessel may be interesting.

First, the damage sustained when she struck on the rock before sinking, as found after she was raised:—

The extent of the damage lay within three frames, or a length of 4 feet, in the engine room compartment, on the port side, close behind the donkey engine. There was a crack or rent in one of the plates; the top of the crack was about 4 feet under the load water-line; the crack was alongside one of the angle iron ship's frames. It was 3 feet long, and of an average width open of 1 inch. The frame was bulged in about 8 inches.

There was also a hole about 2 feet aft of the crack and on the same level;

this hole was about 3 inches diameter, and had a sharp pointed bit of hard rock sticking in it.

The “Taranaki” was divided into three compartments, by watertight bulkheads. The damage took place in the centre one, but the aft compartment seems gradually to have filled. The fore compartment evidently remained unfilled, as will be noticed afterwards.

The vessel kept afloat for seven hours after she struck, and then went down stern first, burying the stern in the mud, scooping up twenty or thirty tons of soil on to the poop, knocking away the poop rail and stanchions round the stern, leaving the steering gear uninjured, but twisting round and breaking the rudder. The screw propeller had been knocked off on the rock shortly after she struck.

The boiler was injured when she sunk, and was found to be very seriously damaged, having collapsed from the outside pressure of the water as the vessel suddenly sunk to the depth of 17 ½ fathoms, assisted probably by a partial vacuum formed by condensation of the steam. (See sketch of boiler.)

The top of the shell, although arched and strengthened by angle iron ribs round the top, with 1 ¾ inch stays from the angle irons to the bottom of the boiler, was forced in 18 inches, crushing and bending these stays, and also the gusset stays 1 foot wide by 1 inch, at the angle formed by the top and back of boiler. The 1 ¾ inch stays, from top of boiler to top of combustion chamber, also were broken and bent. In collapsing, the top of the boiler had dragged back the uptake for 18 inches on top, taking the steam chest with it, and also dragged the back of the boiler in towards the combustion chamber, leaving the stays sticking through the back.

The combustion chamber, the tubes, tube plates, and the bottom and front of the boiler were found uninjured and not moved.

In the fore deck, over the forward compartment, which seems to have remained free of water till after she sank, ten deck beams were bent down 8 inches by the pressure of the water from outside, bending the 3 inch iron stanchions supporting them from the lower deck, and the hatches were found forced inwards.

The forward watertight bulkhead was bulged in forward about 1 foot.

Second, the effects accruing from her long retention under water:—

She sunk on the 19th of August, 1868, and was pumped out, on raising her, on the 26th of September, 1869, —a period of over thirteen months.

Her hull was completely coated with shelly encrustation, except the bottom, which the marine paint had kept tolerably clean. Her small spars and upper decks were completely worm eaten and gone; any Teak wood was found sound; the cabin fittings, where painted, were in general sound.

The engines were found in working order, all the journals and bearings bright and clean. The wrought-iron starting gear tarnished but not damaged, and the cast-iron work uninjured.

One of the cylinders was free of water, the other was full.

Having thus attempted to give a description of the plan of operations, the position of the wreck, and mentioned the principal damages she sustained, I shall give some notes of the operation of raising the “Taranaki,” interspersed with a few extracts from a journal kept by Mr. Thirkell; and thus give some idea of the nature of the work.

On the morning of June 23, 1869, a start was made by the adventurers from Wellington, in the steamer “Ladybird,” hired as a tender during the operations, and they got to Picton the same afternoon, and next day launched two of the pontoons and took in the cross logs and moorings.

On the 26th June, left Picton, and towed the two pontoons to Bowden's bay, where the “Taranaki” lay sunk. From this time to the 10th July they

were getting the anchors and chains out of the “Taranaki” by aid of the divers, and mooring the two pontoons and the “Ladybird,” —a work of considerable difficulty; also getting the cross bearing logs bolted together in pairs, and other preliminary arrangements made.

On the 12th July, got the stage for the divers into position; one of the divers went down and opened one of the port-holes, found depth to port-holes, at low-water, to be 88 feet.

From this date up to the 21st, engaged getting lifting rods from these two pontoons hooked on to the ports by the divers, which required much patience, perseverance, and repeated attempts before completion.

The divers seem to have remained down from twenty minutes to forty minutes, often over an hour, and on some occasions for one hundred and five minutes.

On the 21st July, the “Ladybird” went to Picton, and returned on the 23rd with the third and fourth pontoons, and they now moored the “Ladybird” in position for hauling the “Taranaki' ahead, having 60 fathoms of chain ahead, and with the “Taranaki” made fast to her stern with 30 fathoms of chain; also moored the third and fourth pontoons in position, and this with getting the rest of the cross logs ready, and other work, occupied until the 26th, on which day the diver examined, and reported on, the extent of the injury the vessel had received when she struck, and which has already been described. From this time up to the 6th August, getting the lifting rods from the third and the fourth pontoons down and fixed, and getting the other gear ready. For the scupper holes, one or two of which were used, a special hook had to be extemporised, as the hooks made for the port-holes would not do for them.

Extracts from Log:—“Wednesday, 14th July, 7.15 a.m., commenced work, light S. W. wind; men rigging up gear for supporting bars, and attending to diver.

“One of the divers went down at 7.45 a.m. to hook on, down thirty minutes, went down again at 8.35 a.m., down sixty-three minutes, wanted stage shifted; went down at 10.16 a.m., down twenty-nine minutes, came up, reported slide too short for the port; went down at 11 a.m. to unhook and send up the slide to alter, down sixteen minutes, came up; the other diver went down at 12.55 p.m., took slide with him.

Put hook in and secured it with slide, down twenty-five minutes, came up to shift stage; went down to second hook at 1.40 p.m., after trying to cut covering board, came up to shift stage a little aft, down twenty minutes; went down again at 2.5 p.m., down fifteen minutes, came up, could not work, tide too strong; put down bars ready for divers next day, and got blocks and balance weights ready.

“Tuesday, July 20—Strong N. W. wind and dry weather; 8 a.m., commenced. Men putting four full lengths of bars, with hooks, etc., down, ready for the diver to hook on when the tide slacked a little; shifting stage, which was foul, and took a long time to clear, on account of the tide drifting it against the vessel's side; fitting up the remainder of the sheaves on the port side, and two on the starboard side, and altered the rope from the blocks to the sheaves, and found the balance weights worked much better.

“One of the divers went down and commenced to cut out and unscrew port-hole No. 13, at 11.45 a.m., hooked on and came up after being down forty minutes; got refreshed a little, and went down at 12.40 p.m. to clear away for hook No. 12; hooked on, and screwed up and lashed up Nos. 12 and 13 to the rail, and then came up: down sixty minutes.

“Part of the men went to dinner, and part remained to shift stage and ladder

ready for the other diver, who got dressed and went down at 2.40 p.m. to hook on Nos. 14 and 15; succeeded in opening three port-holes, and cut away and screwed up Nos. 14 and 15, put lashing on the rail, and came up after being down eighty-five minutes. The “Storm Bird” arrived from Wellington with some bars, etc., as the after lengths had been found 4 feet to 8 feet too short.

“Saturday, July 31—Strong N. wind and rain all day, one diver went down at 9.25 a.m., as soon as the hooks were altered for the scupper hole, down thirty-eight minutes; came up and reported the hook too large for the hole; made it smaller at the point, and then diver went down at 11.12 to put it in, down forty-three minutes, came up and reported the hook half way in, and could not get it any further.

“The other diver got ready and went down at 12.45 p.m., he drove it up and wedged it with three iron wedges, down sixty-five minutes and came up to refresh: went down at 2.10 to find the middle scupper hole, found it and put hook in half way and could not get it further in, nor out again; down fifty minutes, came up and could not go down any more to-day.”

By the 7th August, all was ready to try a lift, and on that day we find the journal saying:—“Weather fine all day, commenced at 12.30 p.m., sunk pontoons by letting in water; connected on at 1.30 p.m., and screwed all the bars tight, and began to pump out at 2.45 p.m., assisted by the whalers from the Sound. Vessel began to lift at 3.30 p.m.; all the water pumped out at 4 p.m. The pontoons rose considerably, two of the after logs of the fore pontoons sprung, being undersized; hove in by the ‘Ladybird's’ windlass as the tide flowed, got ahead 50 feet, and ceased at 8 p.m.”

This was the first lift, and rather an exciting time. The lift got was about 5 feet, of this 3 feet was due to the rise of the tide, and 2 feet to the effect of pumping out the pontoons.

When she first started out of her bed in the mud, the pontoons started or jumped up nearly six inches; before this start the deck of the pontoons was 14 inches out of water on the inner side, and 2 feet on the outer. (Usually, however, it was afterwards found there was none of this jerking up, but a steady lift.) The following days the same mode of procedure went on.

“12th August—4 a.m., commenced to connect bars to screws, and screwed down about 10 inches; at 6.45 began to pump the water out of pontoons, and with the tide lifted the bow up about 5 feet, but found the bank with a greater rise than was expected, which makes the after end difficult to ground, hove ahead with some of the men, and the remainder finished pumping; at 12.30 p.m. found the anchor, in heaving ahead, ‘come home; ’ could not heave any more until it is lifted, and placed farther in shore, with one of the pontoon's mooring anchors to back it.”

They had now got the wreck hauled ahead close to the rise of the steep bank, and went on lifting and hauling until the bows got well up, while the stern got to the foot of the slope, not very much higher than it was originally.

On the 17th August, they sounded and found the vessel to be 26 ½ feet higher at the bows than at the stern, being about the angle of the bank at this place. On Saturday the 21st August, they found as the steamer settled down aft, that she slid down the bank for 16 feet; so they concluded that she would have to be lifted over the bank by the screws only.

They now began to put more men on the screws in the after pontoons, so as to lift the stern a little more than the bows, at each lift, so as gradually to get a more even keel on the wreck, and as they did so, hauled the stern sideways on to the bank, as well as hauling her ahead; the log going on thus on the 25th and 26th:—Divers commenced to take off some of the long lengths of the bars.

“30th August—6 a.m., commenced work; fine clear weather.

“Began to screw up; went to breakfast 8 a.m., began work 8.45, finished up the length of the screws, and fleeted down again, and recommenced to screw up; went to dinner at noon; commenced at 1 p.m., screwed up the full length, and began to fleet part of the screws; ceased work at 5 p.m., having lifted the fore end 3 feet, and the after end 4 feet.

“31st August—Day fine throughout, with light N. W. wind.

“At 6 a.m. commenced to take off the second length of long bars of the two after pontoons, and fleet down the screws on the fore pontoons.

“At 10 a.m. commenced to heave up the length of the screws; hove in by the north-west chains, and hove the ‘Ladybird’ ahead; 2 p.m., fleeted down the screws and commenced to heave up the second lift, got about two-thirds of the screwing up, and ceased work 6 p.m., having lifted about 3 ½ feet during the day, and gone well up the north-west bank, as well as ahead.

“September 2nd—Fore lower-mast head about 2 feet out of water.

“September 3rd—Found two of the hooks had torn away the plate of the port-holes, not having hold of the angle iron. Let water into pontoons to ease the bars, the vessel resting on bottom, and sent down both divers to put in the two hooks properly. Shifted the whole of the logs forward upon the after pontoon, and took the foremost log into the middle to the two ports left vacant.

“Having pumped water out of pontoons, after dinner commenced to heave up, and got a lift of 2 feet. Ceased at 5.30 p.m.

“September 4th—Fore-top out of water.

“September 6th—Fore-top 2 feet, and main-mast head 1 foot out of water.

“September 11th—Lifted to-day 3 feet 9 inches at fore-mast, and 4 feet 3 inches at mainmast; forecastle deck 10 feet under water, quarter-deck 25 feet under water.

“September 13th—Screwed up 3 feet at fore-mast, and 4 feet aft; found the seams of the pontoons opening a good deal from exposure to the sun.

“September 14th—Lifted 3 feet 4 inches forward, and 4 feet aft.

“September 15th—The divers began to take off last lengths of long bars: lifted at fore-mast 2 feet 5 inches; the fore end of the forecastle deck out of water, found the pine deck very much worm-eaten.

“September 16th—Lifted forward 1 foot 5 inches, and aft 2 feet.

“September 17th—Let water into pontoons to slack the bars; shifted all the logs to a more direct lift, and took one log and screws from the after pontoons, and put them on the fore pontoons, fleeted the screws down, after placing the logs in position; pumped water out of pontoons, and lifted with the screws; lifted to-day at fore-mast 2 feet, and aft 2 feet 2 inches, and hove the vessel ahead about 20 feet.

“September 18th—Lifted at fore-mast 2 feet 6 inches, and aft 4 feet.

“September 20th—Raised the logs which were over the forecastle and the deck-house; came ahead to-day about 70 feet; lifted at fore-mast 1 foot 3 inches, and aft 3 feet.

“September 21st—Hove ahead at high-water; let water into pontoons; cut two logs for blocks for packing up; screwed about 6 inches, and pumped out water from pontoons; lifted about 2 feet 6 inches; floated over the bank and ran ahead with the strong wind towards the beach for about 300 feet.

“September 22nd—Hove ahead at high-water, and let water into pontoons to block up logs, which are now upon the rail of the “Taranaki.” The two divers down to examine the cracks in plates, and stop up holes, pumped out the pontoons.

“September 23rd—Commenced to pump out the fore hold of the wreck.

“September 24th—Continued pumping.

After due consideration and many interesting experiments, the conclusion was arrived at, that a district of average density of population contained 30,000 people per square mile, and the sewage was proved to be nearly equal in amount to the water supply. The calculation was, that the average daily amount to be provided for would be five cubic feet per head per day. The total areas drained on the north side of the Thames amounted to about forty square miles, on the south side to about the same, with a quantity of sewage amounting to 40,000,000 cubic feet per day on the north, and 23,000,000 cubic feet per day on the south side, respectively.

In 1865 a Private Bill was brought before a select committee of ten members of the House of Commons, having as its object the utilization of the sewage on the north side of the Thames. The Board of Works had previously advertised for tenders and proposals for effecting that purpose, with a view of making the sewage repay the cost of maintaining the drains,—the cost of construction, which will amount to about £4,100,000, being provided for by a rate upon an estimated rateable value of £14,500,000. The scheme which the author is now describing was the one approved by them, and to the advocates of which they made a grant of the total sewage on the northern side, for a period of fifty years, upon certain terms. After a protracted struggle the Bill was passed, in spite of the determined opposition of the Council of the City of London, who insisted that the terms were not sufficiently favourable to the ratepayers, the maximum estimated price per ton, twopence, being, in the opinion of their advisers, far beneath the true value of the sewage.

The main works, which were estimated to cost about £3,000,000, were then commenced, and for the purpose of testing the value to the farmer, of London sewage, taken just as it came down the outfall sewer, the directors determined upon renting a small farm of about two hundred acres, in the vicinity of Barking, to which the sewage was forced by steam-power, at the rate of 175 cubic feet, or five tons, per minute. A tank, holding thirty tons, was erected, into which the sewage was delivered from the main, so that at any period in the day the quantity delivered could be accurately gauged by the manager. His record, compared with the indicator attached to the engine, gave correct and reliable data upon which the reports submitted to the public were founded.

Up to this time so little was known of the capabilities of sewage as a manure, and the quantities in, and intervals at which is should be supplied, that the directors considered they could not do better than conduct their experiments on a thoroughly practical system, and one which would bear the inspection of both farmers and business men in general; more particularly as there exists in England a strong feeling on the subject of the fouling of streams and rivers, as is shown by the recent action of the Legislature, which is doing its utmost to prevent public bodies and private individuals from turning natural watercourses into noisome and unhealthy cesspools. Oxford and Reading are at the present time liable to penalties of £50 per day, under recent Acts for the purification of the Thames, and the Royal Commission on Rivers, now sitting, will doubtless place many towns under the necessity of instantly carrying out their drainage works, with a view to the utilization and deodorization of their sewage. It thus becomes a serious question whether it will be possible so to utilize these products as to render the residuum harmless, and at the same time to make the necessary works pay a fair interest on the cost of construction.

Sewage irrigation has been carried on at Edinburgh, Croydon, Carlisle, Rugby, Watford, Worthing, the Crystal Palace, and in other places.

The experiments made at Rugby were conducted by Mr. Lawes, a manufacturer of artificial manures, and a well-known agriculturalist, who was also at the time, a member of a royal commission appointed to make experiments and report their results. They were therefore carefully conducted, and the following were the values assigned:—

£15 per acre being the value of the milk derived from one acre of ordinary meadow grass, £25, £33, and £36, were the values derived from the same grass when watered with 3000, 6000, and 9000 tons of sewage per acre. From the use therefore of 1000 tons of sewage, we get a result varying from £3 6s. 8d. to £2 6s. 8d. over and above the amount that would have been produced by the natural grass, assuming milk to be worth 1d. per pint. This gives the sewage an average value of from 8d. to 55d. per ton. The sewage which had been used was found by analysis to contain from 15 to 25 per cent. of its manurial properties, owing to the nature of the soil and the slope of the ground, and it might have been advantageously used a second time.

In Edinburgh the results have been more satisfactory with regard to the money value per acre. There the meadows are annually let or sold, the purchasers generally cutting the grass for themselves, at prices varying from £25 to £40 per acre; and at Leith, where the sewage is used a second time, at £30 per acre.

These results are, however, obtained by the use of very large quantities of sewage, as much as 20,000 tons per acre being applied, although its actual manurial value is not equivalent to more than half that of ordinary sewage, as the Foul Burn, by which it is brought down, drains a large area of open country.

At Croydon, after paying rent at the rate of £4 per acre, the gross value of the sewage is returned at from ¾d. to 1d., for Italian rye-grass, per ton, used.

The results obtained by Lord Essex at Watford, by Sir J. Paxton at the Crystal Palace, and by Mr. Mechi, and others, do not admit of accurate comparison, an exaggerated value having been put upon sewage as a manure, and consequently the outlay upon pipes, pumps, and apparatus, has usually been upon far too large a scale.

In the case of the farm now about to be described, it should be borne in mind that the object for which the farm was worked, was not so much to pay a dividend, as to prove definitely the actual value per ton of sewage delivered on a farm, and for what sum per acre a certain quantity of sewage could be economically made available.

So far, the three principal methods of irrigation have been the catch-water, the ridge and furrow, and the hose and jet. These names almost explain themselves; but that there may be no mistake, I may explain, that the catch-water is a system of contour ditches communicating with main feeders, each ditch acting as a drain to the plot of land lying above, and a feeder to that below.

The ridge and furrow is commonly used when the natural fall of the land is too slight for the catch-water system, and can frequently be made use of in conjunction with, and prior to it. It consists of a series of artificial undulations about 60 yards wide, having a fall of 1 in 140, or thereabouts.

The hose and jet is a system of underground pipes, under pressure, having valves at intervals, and junctions to which the hose is affixed, the hose itself travelling on a light carriage to prevent injury to the crop. There is also another system occasionally made use of, viz., wooden or iron troughs, but it is usually auxiliary to the other methods of distribution. In the present example the ridge and furrow, and the catch-water, were the systems employed. The area brought under their operation amounted to about seventy acres, and

the crops experimented upon were wheat, oats, mangold wurtzel, sugar beet, cabbage, onions, lucerne, kohl-rabi, potatoes, flax, leeks, celery, asparagus, strawberries, etc., but principally Italian rye-grass, a patch of Bromus Schroederi, or prairie grass, and ordinary old pasture. Upon its arrival at the farm the sewage was allowed to flow from the measuring tank into another considerably larger, whose top was truly level, thus allowing the liquid of the sewage to flow over its lips, and retaining a greater part of the sediment. This was done to facilitate the labour of cleaning the carriers, but the porous nature of the ground, and the large quantity of sewage absorbed by the carries, rendered it advisable to allow the sewage to flow, at first, direct into the carriers, which were gradually puddled by the deposit. The farm was pipe-drained, which was also an unnecessary expense with land of so light a character, and with a deep gravel subsoil. So far as experiments have gone, subsoil drainage has been found of little value in sewage irrigation, as in the extreme case of Croydon, where the soil is a stiff clay, the subsoil drains were taken up by the proprietor, who said the grass was better where they had not been laid down. This fact is opposed to the general opinion of the agricultural world, but there is little doubt that a gravel subsoil will carry away a very great additional increase to the rainfall of a tolerably dry country.

The fifty-five and a half acres of Italian rye-grass supported from 200 to 300 milch cows, which were fed upon 2500 tons of grass, 1 cwt. to 1 ½ cwt. each per day, the produce of 250,000 tons of sewage.

This is taking the whole, and striking an average, but taking that acreage, which at the same time was producing its full and proper yield of grass, it was found that 61 tons per acre was the actual crop carried. Therefore, supposing that all the fifty-five and a half acres had been of equal standing, and sown at the same time, the total yield would have been 3250 tons of grass, or about 1 ton of grass for every 100 tons of sewage, and supposing 750 tons are deducted as the natural yield of the same land under ordinary circumstances. Cow feeders, and others, give 15s. to 20s. for this grass cut and bound, so that the produce of each acre would be from £40 to £60. The laying out and drainage costs from £5 to £15 per acre, thus, inclusive of very heavy charges for labour and machinery, there remains a large margin for profit.

The mangold was sown in May, and taken up in October, having been sewaged at the rate of 1100 tons per acre. The crop averaged fifty tons per acre, doubling the yield on another part of the farm where the land was equally good, and had received twenty tons cow-house dung and five hundred weight of mixed guano, superphosphate, and common salt, per acre. All the other crops mentioned turned out very well, many carrying off prizes at the Royal Agricul. Inst. Christmas Show at Islington. The sugar beet had a higher saccharine value than any produced in England; the strawberries took the second prize at the Royal Hort. Society Show in June, 1867: the three or four acres thus planted were a wonderful sight, the berries being of enormous size and in the utmost profusion. In wheat, a dressing of 500 tons per acre produced a crop of forty-three bushels per acre, with four and a half loads of straw, whilst contiguous land under ordinary conditions bore twenty-nine bushels with three loads of straw. The cabbages also did well, being planted in August and sold in October, at £10 per acre, on the ground.

The author is indebted to Mr. J. C. Morton, the eminent agriculturalist, who had the general supervision of the farm, for some of the above figures.

Sewage irrigation carried on under the circumstances above mentioned was therefore a decided success, but it would be a mistake to suppose that all these results were due exclusively to the manurial properties contained in the sewage. It has been proved in many parts of the world, that pure water used

at the proper times, and under proper conditions of soil and climate, has a wonderfully beneficial effect upon vegetation, so that the above results must be modified, if a true value of sewage as a manure is to be deduced.

Before closing the subject, there are still some observations to be made upon the theoretical value of sewage, and upon the effects of its use as a manure, upon the health of those living in contiguity to sewaged land.

By an average of the analyses of several of the most distinguished chemists it has been found that 200 oz. of ammonia are voided annually by an individual, ⅞ths of which exists in the fluid matter of sewage, whilst the average amount found in one gallon of sewage varies from 9·7 to 3·91 grains, according to the water supply. This represents a composition in which 1000 tons of sewage is equivalent in ammonia to from 16ths to 6ths cwts. of guano. Taking guano at 13s. a cwt., the value of sewage varies from 2·44d. to 1d. per ton. At Barking, from one hundred tons of sewage were derived one ton of grass, of a value of from 15s. to 20s., which would give the practical value of 1·8d. to 2·4d. per ton, thus approximating, in a striking manner, to the theoretical values.

As regards the sanitary points in such a system, it might be reasonably expected that the continued pouring out of such vast quantities of rapidly fermenting manurial matter, the earth would by degrees become saturated, and refuse longer to carry out the powers of deodorization with which nature has endowed her; such, however, is the case in very rare instances, as it is usually hard to detect any effluvium whatever, and that which exists has nothing particularly disagreeable in its character, being merely like a concentrated essence of soap-suds. This may be partly owing to the extreme dilution, and the absence of any solid matters in the sewage, by the time it arrives at the outfalls, and the rapidity with which it finds itself on the soil before fermentation has set in, and whilst it is in the most fitting state for absorption by the growing crops. In fact, in the sewers and reservoirs themselves, after the first day or two, little inconvenience is experienced whilst the superintendent of the lower part of the sewers frequently has to take a walk of some miles up and down the sewers, or a stroll through the reservoirs, before breakfast, without being a bit the worse for it. Upon the tops of both the Barking and Crossness reservoirs are several labourers' cottages, where no illness has resulted; and at the time of the last cholera attack in London, some hundreds of men were drafted down into the author's works from the Isle of Dogs' sewer, where several had died, and a panic had arisen. There was not, however, a single fresh case after their removal, though there were many of them daily in probable contact with millions of so-called choleraic germs. It may, therefore, be fairly assumed that no evil effects can result from the use of sewage as a manure, always supposing that it is sufficiently diluted, sufficiently fresh, and sufficiently disintegrated by its passage through the sewers. Also that Italian rye grass is the crop to which it can be most economically applied in large quantities; the more particularly, as the land upon which it is grown must be re-broken up every three years, so as to ensure a full crop.

This periodical stirring would also have the effect of preventing the soil becoming too sodden, or giving rise to the generation of noxious gases.

This paper has been written with a view to lay before the meeting a slight sketch of the value of a system of Main Drainage, which shall ensure a small return to ratepayers upon any sums expended by them in behalf of the health of the general public, as well as to show the value of sewage irrigation generally, where the produce can command a ready market.

perpetual snow, would have rendered futile any attempt to obtain a connected series of levels by the use of the spirit level, and therefore not only the trial levels, but those required for the location of the selected route were calculated from barometric observations.

“As this, however, involved a great mass of calculations, the author was led to consider whether the reductions of the barometer observations could not be effected by simpler means than those commonly used. It then occurred to him that if the altitude corresponding to any reduced barometer reading were divided by the difference in the height of the mercurial column at the sea level, and at the given altitude, the resulting quotient would be a factor, which might be used for calculating approximately the altitudes corresponding to other barometric readings within a certain limited range.

“Thus, assuming the height in inches of the mercurial column at the sea level=30,

which could be used for calculating approximately the altitudes corresponding respectively to the barometer readings between 30 and 29, 29 and 28, 28 and 27, 27 and 26, etc.

“Following up this idea, it further became apparent, that as the differences of mercurial pressure are expressed in inches and decimals, the decimal division of the differences between these factors would supply the means of calculating factors for all intermediate barometric readings, not, it is true, with perfect accuracy, but within limits of error which may be practically disregarded; the maximum error, from the employment of the factors in the calculations, in the resulting altitudes, for elevations under 3250 feet, not exceeding four inches.

“It will be seen at once, that in this system of calculating altitudes, the correction for the difference between the actual and the tabular mean temperature will be most readily made, not by reducing the barometer readings, but by correcting the tabular altitudes; and also that if each of the factors be divided by 480, the resulting quotients will give the constants by which they must be respectively altered, for each degree of difference between the actual and the tabular mean temperature. the result of the above considerations was the construction of the following table (calculated for a mean temperature of 32° Fah., and a mercurial pressure at the sea level of 30 ins.) by which the calculation of altitudes from barometric observations may be effected rapidly, and with the use of very few figures, without the necessity of referring to a table of logarithms, and with a corresponding diminution in the liability to numerical errors.

“The table in the above form having proved of great service in the author's professional practice, it has been extended for publication, by calculating the altitudes for every hundredth of an inch difference in the height of the mercurial column, from 30 inches to 26 inches; and a column of temperatures has been added, which will be found of considerable assistance in calculating the difference between the actual and the tabular temperature at any given altitude.”

Mr. Dobson then proceeds to give the principles upon which the tables are framed, at greater length; with full explanations of the tables themselves, directions for registering the observations, and for using the tables in the calculations of altitudes.

A chapter is devoted to “General Observations,” in which he states that, “in tolerably level country, and in clear, calm weather, the observations may be extended to a distance of from fifteen to twenty miles from a well-ascertained bench-mark without risk of serious error. If, however, there is much wind, not only must these limits be greatly reduced, but it will be advisable that the observations at each of the upper stations should be twice repeated at ten minutes intervals, in order that it may be ascertained whether the barometer is rising or falling, and that the index error may be adjusted according to the directions whence the changes come.

“It must, however, be remembered that the fluctuations of the barometer due to variations in the quantity of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, as well as to other causes, are so great as to render all barometric observations valueless, as engineering data, which cannot be corrected for the deviations from mean atmospheric pressure, by comparison with a register kept at some neighbouring station, of which the altitude has been ascertained.”

The author suggests that “although the mercurial barometer should always be used, when practicable for the observations at permanent meteorological stations, it is at once too cumbrous and too fragile for the rough work of a reconnaissance survey. For this purpose a properly compensated aneroid barometer may be substituted, with advantage, for the more perfect instrument. Up to the present time, the use of the aneroid barometer has, with trifling

velocity of 40 feet a second; it is clear that the bird would remain stationary with regard to the sea over which he was flying, nevertheless he would have a velocity of 40 feet a second through the air, just as much as if the day was quite calm, and he was flying both through the air and over the water equally at the rate of 40 feet a second. This being understood, I will first suppose an albatros, on a perfectly calm day, to be placed in the air at some distance above the sea-level, with its wings and neck stretched out in the attitude of flight, but without any forward movement. It is clear that the moment the support was withdrawn, it would commence falling in a nearly vertical direction, unless, indeed, it had power to buoy itself up by inflating its air-cells with hot air. That it has not this power I have elsewhere shown (See “Ibis,” July, 1865), but for the sake of completeness I may perhaps be allowed to repeat it here. “The temperature of the albatros, as taken by Sir G. Grey, by placing a thermometer under the tongue, is 98° F., and if we add 10° F. to this, in order to allow for the difference between the head and the body, we shall have the temperature of the air-cells at 108° F. The temperature of the surrounding air cannot be taken lower than 48° F.; the bird, therefore, could not raise the temperature of the air taken into these cells more than 60° F. This would increase its volume not quite one eighth; and taking 100 cubic inches of air to weigh 31 grains, and the average weight of an albatros to be 17 lbs., it would be necessary, in order that the specific gravity of the bird might be brought to that of the atmosphere, that these cells should contain 1820 cubic feet of air, or in other words, they must be more than 1000 times the size of the body of the bird. In fact it would require a sphere of more than 15 feet in diameter to contain the necessary quantity.” This objection being disposed of, it follows that the bird must fall.

If now we take the area of the under surface of the body, neck, and expanded wings and tail of the albatros to be 8 square feet, and its weight 17 lbs., we see that it would take an upward pressure of 2–12 lbs. per square foot, to support it. This pressure would be given by a current of air moving upwards with a velocity of 20 feet a second, so that on a perfectly calm day the bird would fall downwards at a constantly increasing rate, until it had attained a velocity of 20 feet a second, which velocity it would keep until it fell into the sea. This is called its “terminal velocity.”

It is necessary to notice that as the position of the body, wings, and wing-feathers of the bird would be inclined to the horizon, the direction of descent would not be quite vertical, but would be inclined in the same direction as the body and feathers of the bird, namely, backwards.

I will next suppose that instead of being calm, a breeze is blowing with a velocity of C feet a second. The bird would now, of course, be forced back in the direction of the wind at the same time that it was falling. But it is well-known that when a body at rest is set in motion, by a force acting upon it, the body commences to move gradually, and acquires a certain velocity in a certain time which is represented by the formula

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v. = P. g. t./W    (1)

where v. is the velocity acquired in the time t., when a force P. acts upon a body weighing W. lbs., g being the force of gravity. This is called the “inertia” of the body. If then we suppose the bird to be facing the wind, the backward velocity, communicated by the wind would increase, while the force of the wind upon it would decrease, but of course P+v would always be equal to C.

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∴ v= C-P   (2)

combining these two equations we get

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t= W (C-P)/g P

now when the velocity of the bird equalled that of the wind, P. would be o, in this case

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∴ t= C W/o =∞

so that the bird could never actually acquire a velocity equal to that of the wind, and there would always be a force of C—v. acting on it, and as the bird, its wings and its feathers, would be inclined at an angle, which I will call Q, to the horizon, and therefore to the direction of the wind, this force would be resolved into two—one, equal to (C—v) sin² Q, tending to drive it backwards —and the other, equal to (C—v) sin Q cos Q, tending to delay its fall or even to raise it, supposing it to be sufficiently great to overcome the force of gravity. But even in this case C—v. is constantly decreasing as it approaches its limit v=C., so that there must always come a time when (C—v) sin Q cos Q is not sufficient to support the bird, and it must commence to fall; so that in all cases it would reach the water in a curved line at a certain distance behind the first position of the bird, the form of the curve depending on C., W., and Q. I have dwelt thus minutely on these simple facts, because it has been supposed that in a gale of wind, a certain position merely of its wings or feathers, might enable an albatros to sail against the wind, without any momentum of its own, which is quite impossible.

Another explanation that has been given is that the albatros can fly almost against the wind, in the same way that a ship beats to windward. This, however, is manifestly incorrect. A ship is placed in two different media, one of which—the water—is practically stationary, and it is enabled to sail at an acute angle with the wind, because the pressure of the wind, being met by the resistance of the water, is resolved into forces having other directions, and advantage being taken of this by trimming the sails, it ultimately results that the ship is moved in the direction of least resistance, viz., forwards. But the case of the albatros presents no analogy to this; it is placed in one medium only—the air, the whole of which is moving in the same direction, and with the same velocity, and it has no means, unless by using its wings, of offering any resistance, except its inertia which we have already seen is not sufficient, to the wind and so resolving its direction into others more advantageous to itself, in fact it is analagous to a balloon, which, except by the aid of machinery, can only drift with the wind.

Having, therefore, seen that while the wings are stationary, no forward movement can be commenced by the bird, we are forced to the conclusion that the albatros sails along by means of the momentum that he had previously acquired by strokes of his wings on the air, or of his feet on the water when rising from it, or from both combined, and that so soon as the resistance of the air has reduced his velocity so much that it no longer prevents him falling, fresh impulses of the wing have to be given. It will now be observed that the difficulty has been shifted from the means of obtaining motion through the air, to that of keeping up a velocity but slightly diminished, for so long a time as the albatros is known to sail without using his wings, or in other words, to the very small resistance that the air must offer to his progress; and if it could be shown that this resistance is not too great to allow for the longest observed time of sailing, all difficulties with respect to this part of the flight of the albatros would disappear. I do not profess to have done this, but I think that I can show that there is no insuperable difficulty in the way.

Suppose now the body of the bird to be inclined at an angle Q to the horizon, and moving through the air with a velocity of v. feet a second, it would rise (omitting the force of gravity for the present) by the angle at which it was flying V. tan Q feet a second, and the resistance of the air to its wings would give it a further upward movement of v sin Q cos Q feet a second, so that the total rise of the bird would be v (tan Q+sin Q cos Q) feet per second; but we have already seen that the terminal velocity of the bird is 20 feet a second, so that in order to find the velocity at which the albatros must fly at an angle of Q to the horizon in order to make the upward movement just sufficient to counteract the force of gravity, or in other words to maintain a horizontal line of flight, we have

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v (tan Q + sin Q cos Q) = 20

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∴v = 20/tan Q + sin Q cos Q

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= 20 cos Q/sin Q (1 + cos² Q)

If we take Q to be 5°, we shall find that v=116; and if we take it to be 10°, we get v=58. It appears, therefore, that if an albatros starts with a velocity of 116 feet a second, while sailing at an angle of 5° to the horizon, he could maintain a constant height above the sea level until his velocity was reduced to 58 feet a second, by gradually increasing the angle at which he was flying to 10°.

I will now compare the actual known resistance of the air to a round shot, to what ought to be the resistance to an albatros to allow it to sail for half an hour without using its wings, and only reducing its velocity from 116 feet to 58 feet per second.

The formula for calculating the resistance to round shot as given by Parcelet, is

R=0.0006 A v²

where A is the resisting area in square feet.

If now we take the area offered to the air by the front surface of the bird to be 0–66 square feet, and its mean velocity at 87 feet per second, we have by the round shot formula

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R = 0.0006 × 0.66 × 87²

=3 lbs. nearly, which is evidently too great.

I will now estimate roughly the real resistance the albatros ought to have met with in order to enable it to sail for half an hour.

Taking the average velocity at 87, it is evident that in half an hour it would traverse 156,600 feet. Now at starting it would have accumulated

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W/2g v² = 17 × 116²/2 × 32 = 3599 units of work,

at finishing it would still have unexpended

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17 × 58²/2 × 32 = 900/ units of work.

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So that substracting one from the other, 2699 units of work have been consumed in going 156, 600 feet, and the resistance overcome would be 0–017 lb. per foot, or only 1/176 of that calculated by the round shot formula. This, how-

ever, gives rather too small a result, as the average velocity must be under 87 feet a second, and I will try a more correct way of arriving at the result.

Let w be the weight of the bird in lbs., V its velocity at starting, and v its velocity after having sailed over s feet in t seconds; and let v′ be its velocity after having sailed over s′ feet in t′ seconds.

If now we suppose the time between t′ and t to be very short we may assume the resistance of the air to be constant throughout the small space s′—s, and to be equal to × Av².

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Therefore W/2g v² = W/2g v′² + × Av² (s′—s).

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W/2g (v′²—v²) = -x Av² (s′′s)

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Or, W/2g. dv²/d s = -x Av²

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∴ dv²/ds = -2 Fv²

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where F represents g Ax/W.

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∴ v²= Ce^−2Fs

Now when s=o, v=V ∴ C=V²

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And we obtain v² =V² e^−2Fs

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v=Ve^−Fs

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e^Fs=V/v   (1)

But when the time is very short we may suppose that the velocity of the bird would remain the same throughout it, and therefore

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s′—s=v (t′—t)

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Or ds/dt =v= Ve^−Fs

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∴FVt=e^Fs + c

Now when t=o, s=o ∴ c= -1

And e^Fs FVt + 1   (2)

Equating this result with that obtained in equation (1) we get,

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V/v =FVt + 1

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F=(V/v-1) 1/Vt

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=V-v/Vvt

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Substituting gAx/W for F we have

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gAx/W= V−v/Vvt

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∴ x=W(V–v)/VvtgA.

atmospheric resistance instead of H E sin A E H. If we take A′ E=H E and draw the perpendicular A′ T, then A′ T represents the height the body would rise (irrespective of gravity) in one second. Now A′ T=A E sin A E H =H E sin A E H.

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Again, Captain Hutton has unaccountably adopted a totally different method to arrive at the vertical component of resistance in the case of the wings, and has resolved the force represented by H E into (1) H K non-effective (2) L E, resisting gravity, and (3) K L retarding the motion of the bird. He has thus arrived at the strange conclusion that at one angle of inclination (and for the body of the bird) the upward pressure is in proportion to the tangent of the angle, i. e., to the ratio of the sine to the cosine (sin A E H/cos A E H) and that at another angle (for the wings) it is in proportion to the product of the sine and cosine of the angle of inclination (sin C E H. cos C E H). The error lies here. On his own assumption H E is the absolute velocity in one second, therefore the retarding force has been overcome in addition to the, production of so much motion. The whole force exerted by the bird is, in fact, H E + R where R : H E ::K E, ∴ it is not L E but K E (= H E sin C E H) which represents the vertical component of the force actually at work. Instead therefore of H A and L E as measures of the upward pressures on the body and wings respectively, we must take H E sin A E H and H E sin C E H.

Captain Hutton goes on to say “the total amount the bird will rise per second will be L E + H A feet.” Introducing the corrections just made, this amounts to saying that the upward pressure on the whole area of the bird =H F (sin A E H + sin C E H). This is a grave error.

Let P be the total pressure which supports the bird;

• p the average pressure on each square foot of sustaining surface;

• M the area of the lower surface of the body and tail;

• N the area of the under surface of the wings;

Then it is evident that P=M × H E sin A E H + N × H E sin C E H.

Now by the assumed data p= P/8 M=2 and N=6 therefore

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∴p=H E sin A E H+3. H E sin C E H/4   (1)

Also p=2 lbs. per square foot, and is assumed to represent the pressure of an upward current of air having a velocity of 30 feet per second. From this we obtain

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H E=120/sin A E H+3. sin C E H   (2)

This equation gives, when ∠ A E H=0°, and C E H=15°,

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H E=120/3 × .258819 = 155(nearly)   (3)

And for ∠ A E H=7°, and ∠ C E H=22°

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H E=120/.121869+3×.374607=96 (and a little more). (4)

Captain Hutton closes this part of his calculations at this stage, and omits to consider that as the angle of flight is increased, the sustaining surface is reduced in the same proportion as the cosine of the ∠ of inclination to the horizon. In passing from the conditions of equation (3) to those of (4), this

it is evident that as 1/p of the loan is brought up every year,

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T=a/p   (1)

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P=a/T   (2)

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a=pT   (3)

With regard to the first case: let a and p be as before, but let t be the number of years it will take to pay off the loan by this method, and let v equal 1+ the interest on one pound at the rate at which the Sinking Fund is invested, so that if it is invested at 5 per cent. it will equal 1·05.

Now at the end of the

• 1^st year the fund will amount to p v

• 2^nd" (p+p v) v=pv + p v²

• 3^rd" (p v+p v² +p) v = pv + p v² + p v³

• t^th" p v + p v² +p v³ + &c … … . p v ^t

but at the end of the last or t^th year, the fund must equal a

∴ p v + p v² +p v³ + &c. . p v ^t

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multiply by v and subtracting pv²+pv³+⁴+&c… …pv^t+1=av/p v^{t+1 − pv} = av −a

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∴ a(v−1)=p v(v^t −1)   (4)

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∴ a=pv(v^t −1)/v−1   (5)

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p=a(v−1)/v(v^t − 1)   (6)

When p is known the per centage required for forming a Sinking Fund equal to p can be found by multiplying p by 100 and dividing by a.

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From (4) we get v^t −1=a(v−1)/pv

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∴v^t=a(v−1)+pv/pv

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t log v=log a(v−1) + pv − log p v

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∴ t=log a(v−1) + pv log pv/log v   (7)

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From (4) we also get pv^{t +1}−(a+p) v+a=0   (8)

From which v can be found by the following rule, known as Bernoulli's.

I will now take the total amount of interest that has to be paid on the loan until it is all taken up.

This on the first system will evidently be a t(v′—1), where v′ is 1+ the interest that has to be paid on one pound of the loan for a year.

On the second system the interest payable at the end of the

• 1st year would be (a—p) (v′—1)

• 2nd "(a—2p) (v′—1)

• 3rd " (a—3p) (v′—1)

• (T—1)" (a—(T—1)p)(v′—1).

But the year before the whole loan was taken up only 1/pth of it would be left, it is evident that a—(T—1) p=p

So that we have an equidifferent series of which (a—p) (v′—1) is the first term, p (v′—1) the last, and T 1 the number of terms. The sum of them therefore, or the whole interest to be paid on the loan

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T−½ (a−p) (v′−1)+p(v′−1)

=a(v′−1)/2(T−1)

Therefore

a(v′−1)t:a(v′−1)/2(T−1):: amount of interest by first method : amount of interest by second method

Or 2t:T−1 :: …. .: … …

But besides the interest on the loan there has also to be paid for the Sinking Fund by the first method p t pounds, and by the second method p T pounds. So that

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pt : p T :: {amount paid for Sinking Fund by first method} : {amount paid for Sinking Fund by second method

And combining the two we get

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2t+ pt: T—1 +p T :: {whole amount paid by first method} : {whole amount paid by second method

Or (p+2) t: (p+1) T—1 :: … … .

Now the limits of p are o and a, and as it gets small both T and t increase, but t will increase slower that T for it also depends upon the value of v which remains stationary. On the contrary as p gets large t will decrease more slowly than T for the same reason, and the position of equality will of course depend upon the values of v and a. If however we take a>1000; p<a/14, and v=1·05—which in practice will include all cases—it will be found that

(p+2) t<(p+1) T—1.

The actual amount that would have to be spent by either method can be easily found by substituting in the following formulæ the different values for a, p, v, and v′.

Nos. 5 and 6 are isolated districts, the latter, in a great measure, cut off from the general Flora by a peninsula of sand-hills, nearly 70 miles in length.

The general facies of the vegetation over the whole is alternately bush, and open scrubby or fern land; there being very little natural grass land, the largest area being that at the North Cape, and even there the prevailing species are not indigenous to New Zealand. The whole country has been, at no distant time, covered by bush, which, no doubt, has been partially cleared off by fires, as extensive denudation by this means is still in progress.

The most of the open land yields Kauri gum, which is obtained by digging for a few feet beneath the surface, thus proving the Kauri pine (Dammara australis) to have formerly been the prevailing species of tree. It might be safely inferred from this fact alone, that a soil capable of producing such heavy forest growth, should now yield heavy crops of other kinds; and so it would under conditions of sufficient moisture.

In addition to the known influence of trees, in drawing more frequent rains, evaporation is also checked, but dry soils, such as the Kauri gum land of Auckland, or the Manuka land of Otago, are always more easily burned in dry seasons; and as, with every additional area added to the open country, the whole will become more arid, it may in the end defy all improvement, even with the aid of agricultural science. In the meantime, it is probable that the prevailing idea that this open land is barren, may be an error; but the principal reason for this idea is its aridity; it is a question therefore of some importance whether further extensive denudations of bush may not render the country positively barren, except in valley bottoms.

As in other parts of New Zealand, the greatest extent of the open land in the northern district of Auckland, is found on the east coast. Much of it is covered by fern (Pteris esculenta), but more commonly the vegetation is mixed, including Leptospermum scoparium, L. ericoides, Pomaderris elliptica, P. phylicifolia, Dracophyllum Urvilleanum, Coriaria ruscifolia, Leucopogon fasciculatum, Weinmannia sylvicola, Gleichenia circinata, Epacris pauciflora, Phormium tenax, with smaller plants of the Orders Lycopodiaceæ, Cyperaceæ, Grasses and Ferns.

The bush is rich in fine species, many of which are found only in the northern half of the North Island, although a few may push stragglers further south; the following are prominent species:—Dammara australis, Nesodaphne Tarairi, Vitex litoralis, Avicennia tomentosa, Metrosideros tomentosa, Tetranthera calicaris, Sapota costata, Ixerba brexioides, Quintinia serrata, Pittosporum umbellatum, P. Kirkii, P. Huttoniana, Phebalium nudum, Phylloclades trichomanoides, Colensoa physaloides.

Such is the sameness of conditions of plant-growth over this northern part of New Zealand, that the vegetation may be classed under two Zones, Littoral, and Interior. No sufficient altitude existing to produce any change worthy of notice. On Maungataniwha (2700 feet), the greatest elevation in these districts, the bush covering the top, is not stunted in growth, which is the first thing noticed on ascending a mountain, if change is produced by altitude. Again on Taratara Hill, inland from Wangaroa Bay, where a portion of the summit is open land, the vegetation is identical with that of the lower levels.

As I have had an opportunity of comparing the vegetation at the extremes of latitude in New Zealand, I may state that many prominent species range over the whole islands; of such are, Myrsine Urvilleanum, Aristotelia racemosa, Myoporum loetum, and the more important species of the Natural Order

Coniferæ; such plants are found equally abundant and luxuriant in the north, as in the extreme south.

Others again find their northern limits before reaching the North Cape district, or dwindle in size from the locality of their maximum growth in the South Island. Of such are some of the Pittosporums, Leptospermum ericoides, and L. scoparium, Fuchsia excorticata, Griselinia littoralis, Drimys axillaris, and D. Colorata.

The birch forests (Fagus), which are so important in the South, are also absent from the North, a few stragglers only being found on the line of the main ranges.

In the district under notice, frequent instances may be found of that disposition to vary, so common among New Zealand species of plants, the cause of which by some has been ascribed to the whole Flora having arrived at such a delicate state of balance, that any small disturbance would produce a great change; but I think it more probable that causes of change have always been in operation while a Flora existed in the islands; and if the range of latitude, and thermal variations which must exist over such a range be considered, it will only require the transportation of plants from localities well suited to them, and vice versa, to produce some variation of form, as we see.

As might be expected, arid winds seem to exert a stronger influence, in producing plant variation, than even temperature. For instance, at the North Cape, and Cape Maria Van Diemen, species such as Myoporum loetum, Coprosma acerosa, and others, even under the dry warm winds of that latitude, may be seen dwarfed and stunted, flattened out on the ground, and hiding themselves, as it were, behind the sand-hills. The same may be seen at Mount Camel, where large patches of low copse forest of the Akerautangi (Dodonoea viscosa) cover the ground, whereas the same plant at Nelson, 7° of latitude further south, forms a handsome, though small tree. In these cases where the causes to variation are not so evident and direct as the action of arid winds, it would appear that the tendency of a plant to vary is increased with the distance from its centre of maximum growth.^*

I am inclined to the opinion that variation in some species shows its derivative track by the young plants reverting to some older type form. As an instance of this, Weinmannia Sylvicola is often seen, in the young state, dotted over the open Kauri gum land, having only imparipinnate leaves, while the older tree assumes a ternate form in the upper branches; and in full adult trees, the foliage becomes unifoliolate in the upper branches, and ternate in the lower—thus, I infer, showing the typical foliage of two species now extinct. It is even probable that the above species has passed through one form that still exists in the South, Weinmannia racemosa, which also shows the extinct form of ternate leaves, but only in the young plant and lower branches.

The limits of this paper will not allow further illustrations of this curious point, although there might be many added with facility. Local collectors will always be liable, in New Zealand, which possesses such a varying Flora, to be deceived with supposed new discoveries, and may be frequently puzzled, from the descriptions in Hooker's “Handbook” having been frequently taken from specimens found only in one locality. Thus, no southern collector has

probably seen the young plants of Panax Colensoi, or Schefflera digitata, with lobulate leaves, yet such are found in the North. Again, he might be puzzled to find Pittosporum tenuifolium with fasicles of flowers in the upper branches, and alternate in the lower. Some of the plants of this genus are remarkably varied in different localities, and to found species on distinctions of flowers being umbellate or alternate, fasicled or alternate, is simply to produce confusion, for as far as the present extent of variation has gone, there is always a common facies in all the varieties of a species, which never can be mistaken.

So inconstant, and limited in distribution are some varieties, that it is necessary to know the New Zealand Flora in every locality, to be able to describe a species, and even opinions on the value of timber, etc., have only a local value from the same cause. Hence the necessity of local observations by many persons, and a combination of the results of their labours, as by such means only will future botanists be able to make out the true cause and laws of variation in plants.

• Ranunculaceæ.

• Clematis indivisa, ^{1 2 3 6 7 8}

• " Colensoi,1 2 6 7

• " parviflora, 1

• Ranunculus plebeius,1 2 3 ⁵ 6 7 8

• " multiscapus,12

• " rivularis,1 2 3 7

• Cruciferæ.

• Nasturtium palustre, 2 6

• Barbarea vulgaris,1 2 6

• Cardamine hirsuta,12

• Lepidium oleraceum,12

• Violareæ.

• Melicytus ramiflorus,1 2 3 ⁴ 5 6 7 8

• " macrophyllus, 2 5 6

• " lanceolatus, 1

• Hymenanthera crassifolia, 5 6

• Pittosporeæ.

• Pittosporum tenuifolium,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Colensoi,1 2 3 8

• " reflexum, 1

• " crassifolium,1 2 3

• " umbellatum,1 2 3 8

• " eugenioides,1 2 8

• " cornifolium,1 2 3 8

• " Kirkii, 1

• " Huttoniana, 1

• Caryophylleæ.

• Colobanthus Billardieri, 5

• Elatineæ.

• Elatine americana, 2

• Hypericineæ.

• Hypericum gramineum,1 2

• Malvaceæ.

• Plagianthus divaricatus,1 2 3 6

• " betulinus, 2 8

• Hoheria var. a, vulgaris,1 2 5 6 7 8

• var. b, lanceolata, 1

• var. c, angustifolia,1 2 3 6 7

• var. d, cratægifolia, 5 7 8

• Hibiscus Trionum,1 6 7

• " Taylorii, 6

• Tiliaceæ.

• Entelea arborescens,1 2 3 4 6 7 8

• Aristotelia racemosa,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Elæocarpus dentatus,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Lineæ.

• Linum monogynum,1 2 3 6 8

• Geraniaceæ.

• Geranium carolinianum,1 2 4 5 6 7 8

• " microphyllum,1 2 3 6 8

• Pelargonium clandestinum,1 6

• Oxalis corniculata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " magellanica, 2 7

• Rutaceæ.

• Phebalium nudum,1 2 3 7 8

• Melicope ternata,1 2 3 6 7

• " Mantellii,1 2 7

• " simplex,1 2 3

• Meliaceæ.

• Dysoxylum spectabile,1 2 3 5 7 8

• Rhamneæ.

• Pomaderris elliptica, 2 3 5 6 7

• " Edgerleyi,1 6

• " phylicifolia,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Sapindaceæ.

• Dodonæa viscosa,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Alectryon excelsum,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Anacardiaceæ.

• Corynocarpus lævigata,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Coriareæ.

• Coriaria ruscifolia,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Leguminoseæ.

• Carmichælia australis, 1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Sophora tetraptera, var. a,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Rosaceæ.

• Rubus australis, 3 vars.,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Acæna Sanguisorbæ,1 2 3 ⁴ 5 6 7 8

• Saxifrageæ.

• Quintinia serrata,17

• Carpodetus serratus,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Ackama rosæfolia,1 2 7 8

• Weinmannia sylvicola,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Droseraceæ.

• Drosera pygmæa, 2 8

• " spathulata, 2

• " binata,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " auriculata,1 2 7

• Halorageæ.

• Haloragis alata,1 2 5 6

• " depressa,1 2 3 6 7

• " micrantha,1 2 3 6 7

• " tetragyna, 3 5 7

• " diffusa,16

• Myriophyllum variæfolium,15

• Gunnera monoica, 2 6

• Callitriche, 2

• Myrtaceæ.

• Leptospermum scoparium,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " ericoides,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Metrosideros florida,1 2 3 7 8

• " albiflora,1 2 3

• " hypericifolia,1 2 3 5 7 8

• " robusta,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " tomentosa,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " scandens,1 2 3

• Myrtus bullata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Ralphii,12

• " pedanculata,1 2 3 8

• Eugenia Maire,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Onagrarieæ.

• Fuchsia excorticata,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Epilobium nummularifolium,1 2 3 6 8

• " tetragonum,1 6 7

• " glabellum,1 3 6 7 8

• " junceum,1 2 3 6

• " Billardierianum, 6 8

• " pallidiflorum,1 2 6 7

• Passifloreæ.

• Passiflora tetrandra,1 2 7 8

• Ficoideæ.

• Mesembryanthemum australe,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Tetragonia expansa,1 5 6 8

• Umbelliferæ.

• Hydrocotyle elongata,1 2 3 8

• " Asiatica,1 2 3 6

• Crantzia maritima, 6

• Apium australe,1 2 3 4 5 6 8

• " filiforme, 2

• Angelica rosæfolia, 1

• Daucus brachiatus, 5 6

• Araliaceæ.

• Panax simplex,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Edgerleyi,1 2 3 6 8

• " crassifolium,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Lessoni,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " arboreum,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " anomalum, 3

• Schefflera digitata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Corneæ.

• Griselinia lucida,1 2 3 8

• " littoralis,1 2 3 7 8

• Corokia buddleoides,1 2 7

• " cotoneaster,16

• Loranthaceæ.

• Loranthus tetrapetalous,1 2 3 8

• " micranthus,1 2 3 8

• Tupeia antarctica,1 2 3 6 7

• Caprifoliaceæ.

• Alseuosmia macrophylla,1 2 3 8

• " Banksii,1 2 3 7 8

• " linariifolia,1 2 3

• Rubiaceæ.

• Coprosma lucida,1 2 3 5 6 8

• " grandifolia,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Baueriana,1 2 4 5

• " petiolata, 6 7 8

• " Cunninghamii, 2

• " robusta,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " spathulata,1 2 3 7 8

• " rotundifolia,12

• " tenuicaulis,1 2 3 8

• " divaricata,1 2 5 6 7 8

• " parviflora,1 7 8

• " acerosa,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " linariifolia,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Nertera dichondræfolia,1 2 8

• Galium tenuicaule, 1

• Compositæ.

• Olearia furfuracea,1 2 3 8

• " Cunninghami,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " albida,1 2 3 6 8

• " virgata,1 2 5 6 7

• " Solandri,1 2 3 6 8

• Celmisia (Monroi?), 1

• Lagenophora Forsteri, 1 2 3 7 8

• " lanata,12

• Bidens pilosa,15 6

• Cotula coronopifolia,1 2 3 7

• " australis, 6

• " minuta, 6

• Cassinia retorta,1 2 6 8

• " leptophylla,1 2 3 4 6 8

• Ozothamnus glomeratus, 1

• " lanceolatus, 8

• Gnaphalium luteo-album,16

• " Keriense,16

• " involucratum,1 2 6

• " collinum,1 2 6

• Senecio lautus,1 2 3 6 8

• " glastifolius,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Brachyglottis repanda,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Picris hieracioides,1 2 6

• Sonchus oleraceus,1 2 6 7 8

• Campanulaceæ.

• Wahlenbergia gracilis,1 2 4 5 6 7 8

• Colensoa physaloides 3 6 7 8

• Lobelia anceps,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Selliera radicans,1 2 6 7 8

• Ericeæ.

• Gaultheria antipoda,1 2 3 6

• " rupestris,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Cyathodes acerosa,1 2 3 5 6

• Leucopogon fasciculatus,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Frazeri,1 2 4 6 8

• Epacris purpurascens,1 2 5 6

• " pauciflora,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Dracophyllum latifolium,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " squarrosum, 2 3

• " Urvilleanum,1 2 5 6 7 8

• Myrsineæ.

• Myrsine salicina,1 2 3 6 8

• " Urvillei,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Primulaceæ.

• Samolus littoralis,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Sapoteæ.

• Sapota costata,1 2 5 6

• Jasmineæ.

• Olea Cunninghami,1 3 7 8

• " lanceolata,1 3 6 7

• " montana,1 2 3

• Apocyneæ.

• Parsonsia albiflora,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Loganiaceæ.

• Geniostoma ligustrifolium,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Convolvulaceæ.

• Convolvulus sepium,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Convolvulus Tuguriorum,1 2 6 8

• " Soldanella,1 2 6 7 8

• " erubescens, 6

• " marginata,12

• Ipomoea tuberculata, 2 5 6 7

• Dichondra repens, 1

• Solaneæ.

• Pomaderris aviculare,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " nigrum,1 2 6 7 8

• Scrophularineæ.

• Gratiola sexdentata, 2

• " nana,1 2 7

• Glossostigma elatinoides, 2

• Veronica speciosa, 8

• " macroura,16

• " salicifolia,1 2 3 4 6 7 8

• " parviflora,1 2 5 6 7 8

• " ligustrifolia,12

• " diosmæfolia, 2 6 7 8

• " elongata, 2

• Gesneriaceæ.

• Rhabdothamnus Solandri,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Verbenaceæ.

• Vitex littoralis,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Teucridium parvifolium, 3

• Avicennia officinalis,1 2 3 5 6 8

• Myoporum lætum,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Labiatæ.

• Mentha Cunninghami,12

• Plantagineæ.

• Plantago Raoulii, 5 6

• Nyctagineæ.

• Pisonia Brunoniana,12

• Chenopodiaceæ.

• Chenopodium ambiguum,1 6 7

• " ambrosioides,1 2 6

• " carinatum,1 2 6

• Salicornia indica,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Amaranthaceæ.

• Alternanthera sessilis,1 2 5 6 7

• Paronychieæ.

• Scleranthus biflorus,1 4 6

• Polygoneæ.

• Polygonum decipiens,1 2 6

• " aviculare,1 2 6 7

• Muhlenbeckia adpressa,1 2 6 7

• " complexa,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Rumex flexuosus,1 2 6 7

• Laurineæ.

• Tetranthera calicaris,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Nesodaphne Tarairi,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Tawa,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " var. Tawa-rau-nui,12

• Cassytha paniculata, 6

• Monimiaceæ.

• Atherosperma Novæ Zelandiæ, 1 2 3 7 8

• Hedycarya dentata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Proteaceæ.

• Knightia excelsa,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Persoonia Toro,1 2 3 7 8

• Thymeleæ.

• Pimelea virgata,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " arenaria,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " prostrata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Santalaceæ.

• Santalum Cunninghami,1 2 3 7 8

• Euphorbiaceæ.

• Euphorbia glauca,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Urticeæ.

• Epicarpurus microphyllus,12

• Elatostemma rugosum,1 2 3 7 8

• Chloranthaceæ.

• Ascarina lucida,1 2 3 7 8

• Piperaceæ.

• Peperomia Urvilleana,1 2 6 8

• Piper excelsum,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Coniferæ.

• Dammara australis,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Libocedrus Doniana,1 2 3 8

• Podocarpus ferruginea,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Totara,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " spicata,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " dacrydioides,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Dacrydium cupressinum,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Colensoi, 3

• Phyllocladus trichomanoides,1 2 3 6 8

• Orchideæ.

• Earina mucronata,1 2 3 8

• " autumnalis,1 2 3 8

• Dendrobium Cunnighami,1 2 3

• Bolbophyllum pygmæum,18

• Corysanthes triloba,12

• Microtis porrifolia,1 2 3 7 8

• Pterostylis Banksii,1 2 3 7

• Prasophyllum pumilum, 2 6 7

• Irideæ.

• Libertia ixioides,12

• " grandiflora, 1

• Pandaneæ.

• Freycinetia Banksii,1 2 3 8

• Typhaceæ.

• Typha angustifolia,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Sparganium simplex, 1

• Naiadeæ.

• Lemna minor, 6

• Triglochin triandrum,1 2 6

• Zostera marina,1 3 6

• Potamogeton heterophyllus, 2

• Liliaceæ.

• Rhipogonum scandens,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Cordyline australis,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Banksii,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Pumilio,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• Dianella intermedia,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Astelia Cunninghami,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " Banksii,1 2 5 6 7 8

• " Solandri,1 2 4 5 6 7 8

• " grandis, 6

• Arthropodium cirrhatum,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Phormium tenax,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " Colensoi,1 2 6 7

• Palmeæ.

• Areca sapida,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Junceæ.

• Juncus communis,16

• " planifolius,1 2 6

• " australis, 2

• " maritimus, 2 6 8

• " effusus, 2

• " bufnius,1 6 8

• " vaginatus, 6

• Luzula campestris,1 2 7 8

• " Oldfieldii,1 2 7 8

• " pumila,1 2 7 8

• Restiaceæ.

• Leptocarpus simplex,1 2 6 7

• Cyperaceæ.

• Cyperus ustulatus,1 2 6 8

• Schoenus, axillaris,16

• " Tendo,1 2 5 6

• " tenax,1 2 5 6

• Scirpus maritimus,1 2 4 5 6 7 8

• " lacustris, 2

• " triqueter, 8

• Eleocharis sphacelata, 2 6 7 8

• " var. gracillima, 1

• " platylepis, 2 6

• Isolepis prolifer,1 2 6

• " riparia, 2 6

• " nodosa, 6

• Desmoschoenus spiralis,1 2 3 4 6 7 8

• Cladium glomeratum,1 2 6

• " teretifolium,1 2 6

• " articulatum,1 2 6

• " junceum, 5 6 7

• " Sinclairi, 6

• Gahnia setifolia,1 7 8

• Gahnia lacera, 1 6

• " xanthocarpa,13

• " arenaria,12 6

• Lepidosperma tetragona,15 6 8

• " concava,1 2 6

• Uncinia australis,18

• " Banksii, 1

• Carex ternaria,1 2 8

• " virgata,1 2 3 7 8

• " pumila, 6 8

• " breviculmis,16

• " dissita,16

• " Lambertiana,12

• " vacillans,16

• Gramineæ.

• Microlæna stipoides, 2

• " avenacea, 1

• Spinifex hirsutus,1 2 4 6 7 8

• Paspalum scrobiculatum,1 2 6

• " distichum, 6

• Panicum imbecille,1 2 6 7

• Isachne australis,12

• Echinopogon ovatus, 2 4 7 8

• Dichelachne stipoides, 4 5 6

• Sporobolus elongatus,1 2 6

• Agostis æmula, 6 7 8

• " Billardieri, 6

• " quadriseta, 2 6

• Arundo conspicua,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Danthonia Cunninghami, 2

• " semi-annularis,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• Poa breviglumis, 5

• " anceps,1 5 6 7

• " foliosa, 4 5

• Festuca scoparia, 5 6 8

• " littoralis,1 2 7 8

• Triticum multiflorum, 2

• Filices.

• Gleichenia circinata,1 2 3 6 7

• " flabellata,1 2 6 7

• Cyathea dealbata,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " medullaris,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Cunninghami, 2

• Dicksonia squarrosa, 2 7

• " lanata,1 2 3 7 8

• Hymenophyllum tunbridgense,1 2 3 7 8

• " minimum, 3

• " rarum,1 2 8

• " dilatatum,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " crispatum,1 2 3 8

• " polyanthos,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Hymenophyllum demissum,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " scabrum,1 2 3 8

• Trichomanes reniforme,1 2 3

• " strictum, 8

• " elongatum,1 2 3 7

• " humile,12

• Loxsoma Cunninghami,12

• Lindsæa linearis,1 2 3 6 7

• " trichomanoides,1 2 8

• Adiantum hispidulum,1 2 5 6 7 8

• " Cunninghami,1 2 6 8

• " fulvum,1 2 6 7

• " æthiopicum,12

• " formosum, 1

• Hypolepis tenuifolia,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Millefolium, 1

• " distans,13

• Pellæa falcata, 2 3

• " rotundifolia,1 2 3 6 7 8

• Cheilanthes tenuifolia,1 2 6 7

• Pteris esculenta,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " tremula,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " scaberula,1 2 6

• " incisa,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " macilenta,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " Endlicheriana,1 4 5

• Lomaria filiformis,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " procera,1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

• " fluviatilis,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " membranacea,12

• " pumila, 1

• " lanceolata,1 2 6 7

• " discolor,1 2 3 6 7 8

• " Banksii, 6

• " Fraseri,1 2 6 7 8

• Doodia media,1 2 4 5 6 7 8

• " caudata,1 2 6 7 8

• Asplenium obtusatum, 6

• " lucidum,1 2 3 5 6 7 8

• " falcatum,1 2 5 6 7

• " Hookerianum,17

• " bulbiferum,1 2 3 7 8

• " flaccidum,1 3 5 7 8

• " australe, 1

• Aspidium Richardi,1 5 6 7 8

• Nephrodium velutinum,1 2 7

• " decompositum,1 2 7

• " hispidum,1 2 5 7 8

• Polypodium australe,13

• " Grammitidis,1 2 7 8

• " tenellum,1 7

• " rugulosum, 2

• " pennigerum,1 2 5 6 7 8