Art. XVII.—A Scheme of University and General Education.

By A. W. Bickerton, F.C.S., Associate, Royal School of Mines and Professor of Chemistry in Canterbury College.

machine, lifting-pumps that would require double the pressure of the air to work them, and such like, are illustrations of what are constantly made by thousands of the ablest of our skilful and ingenious, but uneducated, mechanics. It should, therefore, be the duty of the State to see that every child has a sufficient education.

That this may be done satisfactorily, all elementary schools should be free, and the attendance at some school compulsory. As the prosperity of their children is one of the chief objects of many men's labours, it is not to be desired that the children of the industrious and frugal should be no better off than the children of the idle and thriftless. We must expect that the sins of the parents will more or less be visited upon the children; nevertheless, these unfortunates should not be allowed to go utterly to ruin. The gift of a fair education is one that may safely be given to all, without diminishing the incentive to work which a parent feels on behalf of his children's material prosperity. There can be no doubt that a child will be much less likely to add to our criminal population if the portion of his life when he is most susceptible to various impressions be spent in the school rather than in the streets. Therefore both from motives of humanity and economy every child should have an education sufficient to train his moral nature to a just appreciation of right and wrong; his reasoning powers to be able to form a sound judgment; his power of observation should be cultivated, that the teeming wealth of nature may not be wholly lost to him; his eye, also, should be trained to accuracy and beauty of form, and his hand to be the ready and faithful servant of the mind and eye. He should also be taught something of the properties and laws of the various forms of matter with which he is surrounded. To do this would require a considerable outlay; and here, by way of parenthesis, allow me to indicate how I would obtain the means necessary for a general scheme of education.

In a new country it seems to me that the best way of providing for the expense of education is by reserves of land; for, as the number of the inhabitants increases, so will the rent of the land, and the increased expenditure will be thus met. If the reserves of any particular district be at any time insufficient to provide for the fixed minimum of education the State should subsidise out of revenues. But that the amount obtainable from the reserves should be a matter of local interest, a tax of one-third the Government subsidy should be levied on the inhabitants of the district; and in those places where the reserves are more than sufficient, this sum should go towards increasing the higher educational appliances of the district. I consider a complete system of education should consist of the following:—Infant schools, elementary schools, advanced schools, colleges, and examining body (the University), and training college for masters.

Infant Schools.

It is a difficult task for mothers to interest children when attending to their domestic duties. Infant schools are of great value as a relief to mothers, and to give variety to a child's life, their object should be principally to amuse and interest in a rational manner, rather than to instruct; all lessons should be very short, and should be directed rather to a child's memory than to its reason.

Elementary Schools.

These should be as large as possible, and should, therefore, be so situated as to command a large district. Considerable space should be allotted for recreation. The schools should be large, in order than an efficient staff of masters may be kept, and that the children may be divided into classes large enough to have a separate master, and use a separate room. It is most difficult to keep the attention of a number of boys if several teachers are at work giving instructions before various black-boards in different parts of the room. I can testify to the extremely hard work it is to the teacher, as I have on several occasions given lessons to advanced pupils in the same room in which several elementary classes were being taught, and have found that the strained attention required for discipline makes spirited teaching an impossibility. I look upon separate class-rooms as absolutely essential to the fair progress of the pupils.

The question of “mixed schools” (that is where both sexes are taught together) is receiving great attention in England; it is a question upon which I can offer no opinion. I know, however, it is believed in by many holding the very highest scholastic positions in England, and it is worthy of careful investigation.

I am of opinion that the subjects taught to all the pupils of elementary schools should be of a much wider range than at present. There should also be additional subjects, which should be paid for if parents desire their children to learn them. After “the three R's,” the next most important thing, in my opinion, is mechanical drawing. This at present is scarcely taught at all, yet it is not too much to say that in many trades it is almost more important to be able to read a drawing than a book, and to make one than to write. There are but few professions in which a knowledge of drawing, particularly mechanical drawing, would not be useful. The use of mechanical drawing instruments is a fine means of giving a careful delicate touch and manipulative faculty. It is, I believe, altogether the best means that can be used for this purpose in large classes. I am convinced also that as a means of intellectual training the problems of mechanical drawing are of immense value. The importance of mechanical drawing has been very rapidly forcing itself upon the minds of all engaged in education, especially is this the case wherever traditional methods

have not acted as a bar to progress. In Prussia at present fully one-third the time in elementary schools is spent in drawing, principally by the use of instruments. Professor Fleming Jenkins, in his presidential address to the mechanical section of the British Association, 1871, devoted more than half his speech to its importance. He thus defines it:—“It is the art of representing an object so accurately that a skilled workman, upon inspecting the drawing, shall be able to make the object of exactly the materials and dimensions, without any further verbal or written instructions from the designer.” He goes on to say:—“This kind of drawing educates the hand and mind in accuracy, it teaches the students the elements of mensuration and geometry, and it affords considerable scope for taste where taste exists.” I have too much to say on other topics to dwell further on this subject, which would require a whole evening to say all that its importance deserves. The study of mechanical drawing should be commenced in the elementary schools by practical geometry, then proceed to making plans and elevations of simple solids and the construction and use of drawing-scales.

The other subjects for elementary schools should be—Freehand drawing, as far as copying simple curves and models; arithmetic, including decimals; algebra to equations; as much theoretical geometry as the first book of Euclid (it is, however, the opinion of some of our ablest geometricians that Euclid is not the best teacher); mensuration of surfaces; as much chemistry as to understand the simple processes of nature; the elementary parts of heat, light and electricity; human physiology and the elementary principles of hygiene; some science of observation—as geology, botany, or some branch of zoology; a slight knowledge of the geography of the world, and a little more of his own country; English grammar to the rules of syntax, and about 1,000 roots of the English language; gymnastics, drill, and vocal music. The following are the additional subjects that might be taught on payment in elementary schools according to the demand of the neighbourhood; I do not, however, consider that these subjects should wholly depend for their support upon the fees charged:—Elements of French or German, Latin, history, music (instrumental), colouring (water-colour drawings), political economy.

Advanced Schools.

The attendance at these schools should not be compulsory nor free. The fee charged should not be large for the general curriculum of the school, but additional fees might be charged for extra subjects. In order to prevent these schools from becoming mere elementary schools for the wealthier classes the pupils should pass an entrance examination, showing at least the minimum of knowledge of boys leaving the elementary schools. The ordinary course of these schools should be as follows:—Making finished mechanical drawings, projection descriptive solid geometry; freehand drawings; algebra to

binomial theorem; practical plane trigonometry; logarithms; mensuration; theoretical geometry, as much as the first-six books of Euclid; elementary chemistry and physics; physiology; geology, botany or zoology; English language; one other modern language; Latin. Additional subjects:—Landscape drawing and painting; second modern language; laboratory work in science Greek; instrumental music, and history. In connection with these advanced schools there should be evening classes, that the pupils who have passed through the elementary schools and whose parents did not send them to the advanced school, and others desirous of doing so, might have an opportunity of continuing their studies. The pupils attending these classes should pay about one penny per hour; the payment should be quarterly, thus one shilling per quarter for one hour per week. The teachers in these classes should also be paid by Government on the result of examination of the pupils once a year.

Colleges.

As the advanced schools would be small in number compared to the elementary schools, so the colleges would be small in number compared to the advanced schools; one for each province seems quite sufficient at present, and will probably be so for many years. The colleges should either have a museum of their own, or should be attached to existing museums. It would be desirable to be near a hospital. It should stand in grounds of not less than 100 acres, if possible. The permanent success of a higher educational establishment very much depends upon the esprit de corps existing among the students, and nothing more conduces to develope this than good recreation grounds for cricket and other out-door games. Proximity to a river, that boating and swimming may be practised, would also be of value for the same reason. College friendships (which give such pleasant associations to our days of study) are more frequently developed in the hours of recreation than the hours devoted to study, and there is an incompleteness about educational establishments where the students meet only during the hours of study, which is very striking to any one who has been associated with institutions of both kinds. The colleges should be for persons over fifteen years of age. The students should be of two classes, namely, those attending only certain classes, and those entering for a complete course. The complete course of instruction in the college should be arranged in a time-table extending over three years. Except in special subjects the first class of each course would commence each year, and first year, second year, and third year classes would proceed simultaneously. Care should be taken in arranging this table that the classes of each year's students do not clash. The course of lectures should, in all cases, be thorough, and extend to the present bounds of knowledge. The regular college hours should be from ten to one and from two to five, with ten to one

only on Wednesdays and Saturdays. The fees payable should be 10s per term for one hour per week and so on. A special fee might be charged to students entering for a complete course, say £8 to £10 per term. There should be evening classes in the various subjects taught by the lecturers and professors. These classes should not be so complete as the day classes. The broader principles and more important generalizations should be well worked, with the view to give the students a comprehensive grasp of the entire subject, while the smaller details might be left for private study. Each professor should give one hour per week each term; the lecturers one hour per week for one or two terms. The fee might be about 2s 6d. At the discretion of the Board of Governors this regular course might be replaced by a course of popular lectures, to which course no greater sum than 2s 6d each person may be charged. The regular course of instruction in the colleges should include a complete course of all the sciences—Mathematics, drawing, modern languages, classics, mental philosophy, history. Special courses should also be established for the professions of law, medicine, and engineering.

The University.

This would consist of an examining body, with a power of conferring degrees and granting scholarships, fellowships, etc. That a degree given by a university may be valued, the examinations upon which it depends must be of a high class. The worth of what is to be obtained, and not the mere facility of obtaining it, is the incentive to work with most competitors. The success of the London University offers a good example of this fact. In looking over the New Zealand University Calendar any one having the smallest knowledge of science cannot fail to be struck by the absurd simplicity of the science examination papers. The classical subjects would require years of careful training to pass successfully, whereas I am convinced that as much science as would pass the examination in any of these subjects might be taught in a few days. This should not be so; a fair knowledge of chemistry requires quite as much study as a fair knowledge of Greek, and yet the questions in chemistry require about as much knowledge of the subject as would be required of Greek to master the alphabet. No doubt the study of science at the present time requires to be fostered; but this should be done by providing good teachers and proper appliances for teaching, and by giving scholarships and fellowships of value to successful students, rather than by making the examinations so ridiculously simple that the knowledge required to pass can scarcely be of any value to the holder. Let science once be well known and properly taught it will require no further bolstering up; its own intrinsic merits will be a sufficient inducement for its study. The examiners should be men practically acquainted with the subject; no one should examine in more than two subjects, and there should be some especial reason for his taking more than

one. The examiners in every subject should be changed every two years, one-half each year, otherwise competitors get to know the examiner's specialities, and learn to meet them rather than take a comprehensive view of the whole subject. All advanced examinations in science should include practical work. Thus, in chemistry, certain mixtures for analysis should be sent to all the examining centres. In mineralogy large minerals should be broken up into sets; the sets numbered alike, and one sent to each place. The specimens of geology, zoology, and the other natural history subjects should be identified and described. By giving practical work, and by constantly changing the examiners, the injurious system of learning parrot-like answers to certain stock questions would be avoided.

Subjects of Examination for Matriculation.

Mathematics: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, mensuration-four of these to be taken. Science: chemistry, physics, mechanics, geology, physical geography, botany, zoology, animal physiology—three of these to be taken. Drawing: freehand and model, geometry and perspective, mechanical drawing—two of these. Language: English, French, German, Latin—English and two others to be taken.

There would thus be nineteen subjects of examination, of which one competitor may take only twelve. I propose, in order to pass, he should obtain 40 per cent. of the total marks of the twelve subjects, and satisfy the examiners in at least eleven subjects.

B.A. and B.Sc. Many of the subjects of examination should be in common to both, such as:—English, drawing, mathematics, two sciences, modern language. For B.A. in addition: Latin, mental philosophy, history, Greek, or an additional modern language. For B.Sc., in addition to the work common to both: two additional sciences, a good practical acquaintance with one, descriptive geometry, or water-colour drawings, a certain amount of aptitude in the use of tools. For M.A. and D.Sc. the system and subjects of the London University would probably be suitable.

Examination of Schools, etc.

One quarterly examination of elementary and advanced schools, and terminal examination of colleges, in each case conducted by the teachers themselves. Two annual examinations by inspectors of all the junior boys of both elementary and advanced schools. Three annual examinations of all the senior boys of the elementary schools. These latter examinations should be by the same printed papers all over the colony; they should be superintended by the school committees, and the papers examined by assistant examiners, approved by the University examiner of the same subject, who should himself set the papers and examine for medals. 4. A similar examination of the advanced

schools. These two examinations should be open to all boys of the State schools, free, and should be open to others on payment of one shilling for each elementary subject, and two shillings for each advanced. These fees should be returned to all pupils obtaining 40 per cent. of the marks of the examination.

Scholarships, etc., etc.

1. Special subject elementary scholarships.—In the elementary schools there are the regular subjects, and the paid subjects. There should be scholarships awarded on the result of the master's quarterly examination in the ordinary subjects, entitling the holders to attend the extra subjects free. The following three exhibitions and scholarships would be awarded on the result of the annual senior elementary examinations, and be held for three years. 2. Local elementary exhibitions.—1 per cent. of the boys attending an elementary school should have an exhibition entitling them to free admission to the ordinary subjects of the advanced schools. 3. Colonial elementary exhibitions.—1 per cent. of all the boys attending elementary schools in the colony to receive an exhibition entitling them to free admission to the ordinary subjects of the advanced schools, with a small subsistence stipend. 4. Advanced colonial scholarships.—Scholarships to the number of 3 per cent. of the boys attending advanced schools, entitling their holders to free admission to the ordinary and extra subjects of the advanced school, and to a prize of books. A similar system of exhibitions, etc., should exist in the advanced schools for the extra subjects, and for giving admission to the college classes, and should be called respectively:—5. Special subject advanced scholarships. 6. Local advanced exhibitions. 7. Colonial advanced exhibitions. 8. Colonial college scholarships. The three latter would be given as the result of the senior advanced examinations. The special scholarships, Nos. 1 and 5, and the local exhibitions, 2 and 6, would be held only by boys of the individual schools to which the scholarships, etc., were allotted. The colonial exhibitions, Nos. 3 and 7, would be open to all boys attending State schools, and would be awarded on merit only, without giving preference to any individual schools. The colonial scholarships Nos. 4, and 8, will be open to all competitors; the first under thirteen, and the latter under fifteen years of age. 9. At the matriculation examination of the university there should be scholarships called university scholarships. The special subject scholarships, 1 and 5, may be held at the same time as an exhibition, etc., but one only of Nos. 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9, could be held by a boy at once. In the examinations the first boys on the list to the number of scholarships given would be allotted colonial scholarships. These would hold the highest status. The next boys on the list attending State schools only would be awarded the colonial exhibitions. Then, after these, the first boys in each individual school, not included in the above, would have the local exhibitions. Thus, in any school, the colonial scholarships

and exhibitions which might be taken would be limited only by the total numbers, and depend entirely on colonial competition, but the local exhibitions would be only held by the boys of the individual school, so that local exhibitions would provoke competition among the boys of the school, the colonial exhibitions among State schools, and the colonial scholarships would be State schools against each other, and against private and other schools. In these examinations less than 40 per cent. in any subject should be considered a failure in that subject, and the marks should not count. 10. University fellowships: the competitors who stand highest in the University examinations for B.A. and B.Sc. should have fellowships to enable them to assist professors in original research, or to undertake research themselves. The fellows should be allowed to choose the college they would attend. They should hold the fellowships only on the condition of being at the college during its regular hours, or being engaged on some investigation elsewhere, with the knowledge of the Board of Governors. The fellowships should not depend upon the holders being or remaining single. They should be granted for two years, and should be renewed if the work done by the fellow was of a valuable kind. It would further be desirable to have some provision made whereby all original work done by the professors, lecturers, fellows, or students of a college might be published in a quarto volume with the necessary illustrative engravings. Those engaged in original research, together with the chairman of the college, should form a committee of publication. If the papers were of a valuable kind the transactions could be exchanged for the transactions of other learned societies. This would be of immense value to original workers.

Prize Medals, etc.

1. Local prizes given by persons in the neighbourhood, or out of the individual school funds, to be given on the result of the master's quarterly examinations. 2. Small Government prizes should be given on the result of the inspector's examination of the junior boys. 3. In the senior examinations of both elementary and advanced schools there should be prizes awarded on absolute knowledge, and medals awarded on both comparative and absolute knowledge. In each subject of examination every boy who obtains 90 per cent. of marks should have first-class prizes, 75 per cent. second class, 60 per cent. third class, 40 per cent. should pass a boy without a prize. Provided the examiner considers that a sufficient standard is reached the first boy in each subject should have a gold medal, the two next boys silver medals, and the three next boys bronze medals. The examinations upon which the scholarships and exhibitions were awarded would be only intended for the boys whom the master considered competent to pass into the higher schools or colleges. The masters should be paid capitation fees upon all successful students, but a small fee sufficient to cover the expenses of the examination

should be first deducted in the case of all failures. These exhibitions, scholarships, prizes, and medals, and the capitation grant to masters, would keep up a constant interest in their work, both on the part of masters and pupils. As the awards are made on both comparative and absolute knowledge, both the state of the education in the entire colony and where the work was best being done would be accurately known. It is obvious that what applies to the colony would apply equally to the province or district.

Training Colleges for Masters.

The system at present used in England to get a supply of teachers is by giving a free education to intending masters on their passing an elementary examination. I am doubtful of the advantages of this almost indiscriminate free teaching and giving small salaries afterwards. It has a tendency to lower the social status of the masters. Persons who can afford to give their children a good education seldom make them teachers of state schools, and men of great ability and energy among the masters themselves look to obtain appointments outside their profession, rather than accept the small salaries generally given. I consider that teachers should be well paid and that as an additional inducement to exertion, as well as from their suitability to the posts, such appointments as school inspectors and examiners should generally be made from among the more successful teachers, whose qualifications fit them for the office. The especial object of the training colleges should be to teach the methods of teaching; of keeping registers, and general school discipline. They should be free to all who have passed such examinations as would prove their knowledge to be sufficient to fit them for the post of masters. The general education of teachers should be at their own cost, or by the system of scholarships above referred to. No one should be permitted to be head master of an advanced school who has not a degree from the University of New Zealand or some other in which the examinations were of an equally high standard. All masters in any special subject in advanced schools should have passed the examination of the B.A. or B.Sc. in that subject.

Payment of Teachers.

Money prizes, accompanied by certificates, should be given to the first, say thirty, elementary masters, and the first ten advanced masters as tested by the pupils' examinations. The other payment of masters should be, first, by fixed salary; second, ratio of school fees; third, payment on result of examinations.

Inspectors of Schools.

Inspectors should be appointed to visit schools, to see to the keeping of registers; to examine the junior boys, to look after the discipline, cleanliness and style of speech of the scholars; to see to the state of the school buildings,