plants, and rendering them still more subject to the effects of the severe heat. During winter the temperature falls rapidly at times, and sharp frosts are felt, which, with the severe wind-storms that sweep across the plain, has a serious effect upon vegetation, and is a factor to be borne in mind in viewing the possibility of grassing this plain. Unfortunately there are no meteorological results obtainable nearer than Taupo or Rotorua, where the conditions are so different as to make them of but little value for the subject now under consideration.

The vegetation on the plain is chiefly stunted tea-tree, both Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides, and Draco-phyllum subulatum, and a few other plants and mosses. The tussock-grass (Poa australis) is widely met with, and in some of the moister depressions—and particularly during spring and early summer—the young growth and flower-stalks attract large herds of wild horses, whose condition betokens fair nutriment even on these despised plains. Occasionally alongside the tracks, which ramify in a most bewildering manner, will be found patches of imported grasses and clovers growing luxuriantly, whist on the edges of many of the swampy portions of the plain patches of white-clover often more than half an acre in extent may be found, cropped close and tramped to a beautiful lawn-like level, appearing as oases in the wilderness of pumice-sand and stunted tea-tree.

Now, it is impossible to traverse this vast plain, with its almost interminable monotony of pumice-sand and stunted vegetation, without wishing that it had been a rich basic instead of a poor acidic soil, without wondering whether it is not capable of some treatment which would at least make it of more value for grazing purposes than as at present, by the herds of horses that roam at large or the hares which have made their homes on the plain and appear to be on the increase. It was in this mood that we decided to investigate the subject. We were aware that some attention had already been given to the growth of various grasses by Mr. F. D. Rich, of the Patatere Plains, and, on behalf of the Government, by Mr. H. J. Matthews, at Rangitaiki, on the Kaingaroa Plain, to which we shall refer later; but no systematic analyses have been made of the soils, nor have the causes of the sparsity of vegetation been considered from the point of available nutrition in the land itself. Having, then, decided to investigate the matter, it was agreed that one of us should take the samples personally so far as possible, and in March and April last Mr. Pond commenced the work of obtaining them when on a visit to Taupo and the surrounding district. These samples were taken as far as possible uncontaminated by the ordure of animals, and under conditions which would best

secure a fair average of the class of soil composing the plain.

The first two samples were taken near Lake Taupo, on the eastern side. The surface here rises in terraces from the lake, and is irregularly and sparsely covered with stunted tea-tree and Dracophyllum, there being also a considerable amount of moss on the surface of the ground. The latter was removed, and the sample taken carefully to a depth of 9 in. At some distance further along the road a cutting had been carried through a pumice deposit, leaving the sides nearly vertical, about 7 ft. in height. The second sample was taken here, nearly at the bottom of the exposed cutting. By removing the outer layer a clean sample was obtained at 6 ft. from the surface. This deposit was white and moderately fine, and, being free altogether from organic matter, was chosen chiefly with a view to obtain a knowledge of the constituents unaffected by vegetation.

The third sample was taken near the Arateatea Rapids, about eight miles from Taupo. The soil here appears slightly better in character, and a considerable number of cattle were grazing in the vicinity. Although tea-tree is growing sparingly, yet between it in places there are various grasses and clover growing well, although cropped closely by the cattle. This sample was taken in a place as far removed as possible from other than indigenous vegetation; and, the surface-soil being removed, the earth was obtained as before to the depth of 9 in.

The fourth sample was taken from near the main road, three miles south of the Waiotapu Hotel. At this point, and in the vicinity of some swampy ground, a large patch of white-clover had ben located, the vegetation being very closely cropped and the ground consolidated by the continued tramping. Choosing a place in this patch where the clover was not immediately apparent, the surface-soil to the depth of nearly 1 in. was removed, and the sample taken thence to a depth of 9 in.

For the fifth sample we are indebted to Mr. Brownlie, the resident foreman of the Taupo Road. At our request he obtained and forwarded a portion of soil from close to the Government experimental station at Rangitaiki. Our object was to secure a sample in the vicinity which had not been subjected to treatment, yet near enough to obtain a knowledge of the soil in which these grass experiments are being carried out.

Having thus obtained five samples which are fairly representative of a large portion of these plains, we decided to complete the tests of the acidic soils by an analysis, under the same conditions, of a sample of pumice, and this was taken

from a large nodule found in the hot baths at Wairakei. As the results of analyses of the samples thus obtained would be altogether on the soils formed from the acidic rocks, we felt that a comparison was needed of soils resulting from basic rocks, examined under the same conditions, and, as we had taken pure pumice to compare with the soils arising from degradation of this substance, we felt it incumbent to examine samples of pure basalt under like conditions. We therefore obtained from Mount Eden at different points two samples of volcanic soil and the rocks in the vicinity, choosing the soils from amid the rocks and boulders, which would preclude the likelihood that animals had grazed in their neighbourhood.

Having decided upon these two series of soils from the acidic and basic rocks for comparison, we felt that further benefit would be achieved by carrying out a similar examination of soil under cultivation in the Waikato district, and for this we are indebted to Mr. Chapman Ewen, of Cambridge, who has carefully obtained from his farm a sample to the depth of 9 in., taking this from a portion which had not been manured.

Now, the mere quantitative analysis of a sample of soil, giving its exact equivalent values of the various elements present, however carefully done, is almost useless to the cultivator, while the amount soluble in strong hydrochloric acid in a given time is almost as valueless. Until within the last few years this is all that could be determined, as the conditions of plant-life were not well enough known to permit of any other scheme being adopted. But science has stepped forward to the aid of the tiller of the land, and, in the hands of such men as Voelcker, Liebig, Way, Vogel, Tollens, Stutzer, and Dyer, a system has been carefully planned which has brought order out of chaos.

In a paper read before the Chemical Society by Dr. Bernard Dyer, reported in the March number of 1894, this gentleman shows by many results that the solubility of the mineral portions of the soil, in plants, is due to the acidity of the sap of their roots. He estimated the acidity present in the roots of about a hundred plants composed of different natural orders, and found that although there is a marked difference between various plants of different orders, and even in the same order, still an average could be obtained over the whole estimated as equal to a 1-per-cent. solution of citric acid Dr. Dyer chose citric as being an organic acid, and therefore kindred to the acidity of plants. Following the reasoning of this writer, others have used aspartic, but, seeing the accuracy and value of the work done by citric acid, we decided to adhere to this solvent.

The conclusions arrived at by Dr. Dyer were that air-dried soils ingested in a 1-per-cent. solution of citric acid for seven days would yield to solubility all the material available for plant-food, and no more, thus leaving still undissolved a considerable amount not immediately available to the roots of plants, and which might be termed “latent.” This we removed by treatment with hydrochloric acid, still leaving, after this acid treatment, elements of nutrition so locked up as to be of no avail for plant-life. The analysis of this material was then arrived at by fusion, thus giving a knowledge of the total constituents of the soil in three forms, as follows: (1) Non-available mineral material of plant-nutrition; (2) latent mineral material of plant-nutrition; (3) available mineral material of plant-nutrition.

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

The method of the chemical analysis has already been detailed, but we felt that this would be incomplete without a mechanical analysis, which has been arrived at by sifting through various grades as shown in Table IX., using meshes of twenty, thirty, sixty, and ninety holes to the linear inch, thus making five gradations by mesh, whilst a further division was made of the portion passing the 90-mesh by elutriation, this being performed in a conical glass vessel 8 in. in depth, with a constant stream of water 17 in. in height issuing through a hole 1/10; in. in diameter, 1 in. from the bottom of the elutriator As all the samples were treated under similar conditions the results are comparable. From all the samples stones were rejected which would not pass through a ½ in. mesh, but there were very few in any of them. The results of this mechaniccal analysis will be found in Table IX. In this table we find that the combustible material is much lower in the Taupo soils than the Mount Eden, while the Waikato soil is between the two in this constituent.

The capillarity of all the soils was tested in tubes of 1.5 cm. diameter, standing in water. In some of these tubes the soil was shaken in loosely, and in others hard pressed In all the capillarity was excellent, but the rise was greater in a given time in the hard-pressed samples than those loosely shaken.

The results of our analyses are shown in the following tables, and are arranged as follows: Nos. 1 to 6 (inclusive) from Taupo; Nos. 7 to 10 (inclusive), from Mount Eden: No. 11, from Waikato; and Nos. 12 and 13, from Rothamsted barley soils. The last two are taken from Dr. Bernard Dyer's paper, to which we have already referred, and they represent constituents found in contiguous plots of ground which had been under barley-crops for thirty-eight years. During that period No. 12 plot had received no manure of any kind, whilst No. 13a had received annually 3 ½ cwt. of super-

phosphate, and No. 13b had received 200 lb. sulphate of potash, 100 lb. sulphate of soda, and 100 lb. sulphate of magnesia.

We have already referred to the three classes into which the constituents of a soil may be divided, namely: (1) Non-available mineral material for plant-nutrition; (2) latent mineral material for plant-nutrition; (3) available mineral material for plant-nutrition. These divisions are shown in the following tables, the first class being represented in Tables I. and II.—that is, those constituents insoluble in boiling hydrochloric acid; the second class in Tables III. and IV.—i.e., those constituents soluble in hydrochloric acid excluding the amount soluble in citric acid; and the third class in Tables V. and VI.—i.e., those constituents soluble in citric acid. Whilst the results in the first and second class are of considerable interest, as showing the composition of the soils and the stores of latent plant-food contained in them, we may pass at once to the consideration of Class III., since in this we have a measure of the present fertility of the soils.

For the sake of clearness we repeat the most important results in Tables VII. and VIII. Before considering these results let us determine by what standard of fertility we shall judge them. Dr. Dyer's investigations led him to consider that a soil containing as little as 0.005 per cent. of available potash is not in immediate need of potash manures, whilst one containing more than 0.01 per cent. of available phosphoric acid does not require special phosphatic manuring. If we adopt these standards it is at once evident that the Taupo soils are, on the whole, in a fertile condition. In potash they are all above Dr. Dyer's limit, and, with the exception of Nos. 4 and 6, very much above that limit. In phosphoric acid the first three soils are from two to four times the limit, and are higher than the Mount Eden basic soils, which are noted for their fertility. Of the remaining three Taupo soils No. 5 is very little under the limit, No. 6 is about half that quantity, and No. 4 is very poor. It will be remembered that No. 6 is pure pumice, and not a sample of the Taupo soil, and as such may be left out of consideration. That being so, No. 4 is the only sample that is decidedly deficient in phosphoric acid. It is evident from the foregoing that all the requirements other than nitrogen are well represented, but if we refer to Table VIII. we shall see that, without exception, the results under the Taupo soils are very low, and there is not the slightest doubt that they are altogether too low to give luxuriant plant-growth.

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]

We have now shown that the soil from these plains has the needed mineral constituents to produce grass in abundance, and that these are in ample supply, both in available and latent form, for a considerable time.

The mechanical conditions of the soil are also more satisfactory than we had anticipated, particularly as regards its capillarity. We have therefore much in favour of a successful trial of grassing the plains. The serious difficulty we have to contend with is the almost entire absence of nitrogen, without which no extensive amount of feed can be developed by the grasses. The great difficulty of carrying manure to the district, besides the cost, makes it necessary to rely considerably upon the growth of leguminous plants, either in the form of lupins, to be turned under prior to sowing the grass-seeds, or of clovers, peas, and beans for grazing; probably the combined methods would yield the best results.

As we have already remarked, white-clover grows luxurantly in some of the depressions, as well as alongside the tracks crossing the plains. Now, the fact of this luxuriance points to the presence in the soil of the nitrifying bacteria, which enables the class of plants under review to provide nitrogen from the air or the nitrate-nitrogen supplied by the rain. A matter for consideration, however, is the inoculation of the soil in places with earth bearing these particular bacteria, or, perhaps better still, with pure cultivations of the bacteria applied at regular distances, the spread of which would speedily produce the object sought.

The choice of grasses best suited for these plains is one of the most difficult portions of the problem. That white clover will grow under favourable conditions we have already shown, and we have evidence that some of the imported grasses will bear the conditions of life in this district, as evidenced by a report from Mr. Matthews in the Report of the Department of Lands and Survey dealing with the experimental station at Rangitaiki upon grasses sown more than twelve months previously, in which this gentleman remarks, “The following grasses have done fairly well on this reserve Prairie-grass, Chewing's fescue, Poa pratensis, crested dogs tail, white-clover, and tall fescue, the latter making by far the most headway”; and by the following letter from Mr. Brownlie, written in May last, dealing with the same reserve “In regard to this paddock, I may state that several of the grasses are doing well, especially Chewing's fescue, hard fescue, prairie-grass, and white-clover, in the order named, the best of all being Chewing's fescue, which is looking well, and throws a lot of feed. This is satisfactory considering the very unsatisfactory conditions under which it was sown—I mean poor soil, cultivation, and drought.” But although

the grasses named may be of much value, still there are objectionable features in the small volume of feed yielded by the fescues, and the doubt as to the prairie-grass bearing feeding off.

To our minds the cultivation of some of the New Zealand grasses opens up a subject of immense interest and importance. There are four which we would name of value for this problem.—Microlena stipoides, Danthonia semiannularis, Poa colensoi, and Poa kirkii. The first of these—Microlena—is a native grass which has of late come into considerable repute owing to its spreading habit and apparent ability to withstand drought. On some of the east coast runs this grass has proved of great value on account of the amount of food produced in dry periods and the avidity with which sheep and cattle eat it. The second named, the Danthonia semiannularis, is also a native grass of much value, although it is questionable whether it will yield as much feed as the last named; it is, however, capable of adapting itself to considerable changes, and may prove of value. Both of these grasses grow at Okoroire in land of similar character to that at Taupo, and, we think, can be established in the plains if attention is given to the matter. We are indebted to Mr. Cheeseman for the suggestion of the Poa colensoi and Poa kirkii. These are subalpine plants growing in the South Island, and would well repay the experiment of cultivation under the conditions obtaining on the Kaingaroa Plains, and if once established there could be no doubt of their value for feeding purposes. This by no means exhausts the native grasses, but attention should be given to those growing on the higher lands at Otago, as these will be more nearly under the same conditions as Taupo.

Under favourable cultivation the alteration of the surface of the ground will be marked, as there will be a reduction of radiation of heat and moisture, whilst the wind-action on the soil will be considerably lessened. We have already suggested the growing of leguminous plants, and would advise the planting of furze in the more favourable situations. If this plant can be established it will provide both food and shelter. That there will be a difficulty in this we have no doubt; in fact, Mr. Brownlie's letter, referring to our conversation on the gorse, leans in this direction; but this plant will prove of such exceptional utility, especially in the mode of operations we propose to adopt, that even temporary breakwinds might have to be erected until the first rows of this plant were strong enough to resist wind-pressure.

We have shown that the soil, so far as its constituents are concerned, with the exception of nitrogen, is well able to supply the necessary food for plants in considerable quantities.

Contrary to our expectations, we found a large percentage of the finely powdered soil in all our samples, ranging from 15.7 in No. 3 to 55.94 in No. 4. We have found also, as this would lead us to believe, that the capillarity of the soil is excellent, provided that due consolidation is obtained. The absence of this, owing to the loose texture of the soil, has in our opinion very much to do with the sparsity of vegetation growing on the plains. If this is remedied and nitrogen furnished there should be no reason, other than a climatic one, why the plains should not produce a large quantity of valuable feed. The mere ploughing, harrowing, and sowing will certainly not attain this object; and, although rolling with heavy rollers will give a certain amount of compression, the absence of clay and humus will not allow of consolidation without frequent rolling. This will prove costly, and not yield nearly as satisfactory results as that secured by the tramping of sheep or cattle.

Now, the folding of sheep in small paddocks treated as we have advised would be by far the most effectual method, but the absence of more than the most meagre fare would entail a very heavy mortality at first. It is possible, however, to choose a more hardy animal in the goat, and by this means to achieve results which we think will prove successful in several ways. In the United States Year-book of the Department of Agriculture for 1898 is a very carefully written paper on the Angora goat, by A. Barnes, where it is shown that in almost every State, with the exception of Alaska, the Angora goat can be raised, and, in many given instances, with considerable profit. The greatest success has been attained with them where the altitude is about 500 ft. and the climate fairly dry. Their ability to live and thrive on herbage which other animals reject is shown, whilst the habit of travelling much further than sheep in feeding make the feasibility of herding them unquestioned. As the writer says, “There is the additional incidental benefit that whatever foul land is regularly pastured by these animals for a few years becomes clean, weedless, and bushless, and, usually being evenly fertilised by them also, runs into nutritious grasses.”

The following statements from the same paper will give a better idea of the value this animal has proved under circumstances not much different from those we are considering:—

“The ease with which they can be kept, living as they do on weeds, briers, browse, and other coarse herbage, fits them for many portions of our country where sheep cannot be sustained to advantage, while their ability and disposition to defend themselves against dogs evidence a value peculiar to

the race. They are free from all diseases to which sheep are liable, hardy, and prolific, and experience has proven that they readily adapt themselves to all portions of the United States. The bucks breed readily with the common goat, the second cross yielding a fleece of practical utility, while the fourth is but little inferior to that of the pure breed. A flock of valuable wool-bearing goats can be raised in a few years by using grade bucks. The animals are hardy, good rangers, and long lived when compared with sheep, and do well on land where other animals find it hard to live. Their value as brushwood - cleaners can hardly be estimated; but Mr. Stanley, of Iowa, writes as follows: 'To a person who has never seen the results of the application of Angoras to brush land a ride through my blue-grass pastures is a revelation. Where three years ago the ground was densely covered with undergrowth of hazel, crab-tree, oak, buck-berry, and other brush, it is now growing the finest blue-grass. At the present time I have over 600 acres which have been reclaimed, and a conservative estimate would be that the value of the land has thereby been enhanced at least $10 per acre.'”

The benefits arising from the systematic rearing of these animals will not be solely for the enrichment and consolidation of the land, for the hair and hides are of commercial value which will materially reduce the cost of the work. Mr. Barnes quotes the number of goats in the United States at half a million, of which one-half are Angora, and yet into that country are imported annually goat-skins to the invoice value of over £3,000,000.

We would strongly urge that this experiment should be undertaken at an early date, and, as Mr. Barnes has shown that the fourth generation of a cross between the Angora and the ordinary goat will yield an animal almost equal to the first progenitor, it would be well to take ordinary does with pure-bred Angora rams, and, by herding them during the day and folding on one of several small paddocks at night, the minimum of cost and maximum of benefit would be obtained. Some paddocks should be prepared, the ground ploughed, harrowed, and rolled, and good seed of various grasses and clovers sown, or, if available, turfs of the Microlena and Danthonia. It would be well also in one or more of these paddocks to sow lupins as suggested, to be turned under before sowing the grasses. These paddocks would be utilised for the weaning and care of the kids, and subsequently for folding the older animals at night, they being herded in the day. The gradual clearing, consolidation, and grassing of the plains would thus start from a nucleus to be extended as it was found to succeed. The cultivation of the cow-pea in the