ready to issue forth as the perfect fly. On the other hand, I notice that the larger antelopes of South Africa are liable to suffer from rinderpest, and be greatly reduced in numbers, as are our domestic oxen.

Among these drawings were seemingly two varieties of the horse—the one having a heavy appearance, with a Roman nose or arched frontal, the other being of a lighter type, with slim legs and hogged or short upstanding mane. A most remarkable fact was that some of these horses were seemingly haltered, others had a cord round the muzzle, and two appeared to have some material thrown over the back—a rug or possibly the skin of some other animal.—(Nature, 30th January, 1902, p. 300.)

Here we seem to have certain proof that the man of that time utilised the horse as a beast of burden, and held the horse in captivity, or, as we say, it was “a domesticated animal.” But as yet, I believe, no figures of mounted men have been reported; perhaps the horse was then only used as a pack animal, and these people do not seem to have been in the habit of making drawings of the human figure—at least, I have no remembrance of ever hearing of the fac-simile portraits of the Palæolithic man. Can they have had, like the Maori of the last century, a superstitious dread of drawing or carving the human figure in extenso, the Maori never giving the carving the full number of fingers or toes, by which simple method of abbreviation danger was assumed to be avoided? The Australian blacks had no such scruples, as they drew and carved on trees figures of men and women, which were so roughly executed and were done in such a childlike manner that they give no correct delineation of the form or features. The Palæolithic man of Europe was a far superior artist and his drawings were genuine rough portraits.

Of all animals the horse is most notable for the wonderful length of the hair in its mane and tail, and, noting this, we may suppose that primitive man may possibly have coined a name for the horse indicative of this unusual characteristic. In French the horse is named cheval. Taking as the root of this word chev, as seen in chev-aux (horses), we may assume a connection with chev-eu, hair; chev-elu, long-haired; chev-el-ure, head of hair; chev-et, a pillow or bolster (because filled with hair); chev-ětre, a halter (possibly from ropes and halters being made from the long hair collected from the horse, and we have fabulous stories of the use of ropes made from the long hair of women in the building of notable edifices) Chevětre is also the binding-joint in carpentry, and in surgery a bandage to support the lower jaw. No doubt the halter of the olden time, made from horse-hair, was passed

around the jaw-bone of the horse, the vacancy between the teeth of the horse being specially arranged, as it were, to accommodate this practice. I can distinctly remember the time when a peculiar formation of horse-hair rope was used to hobble or tie together the tail and hind-legs of cows when they were being milked in the open field. Then, we have chev-ille, a peg, pin, or bolt; chev-iller, to peg, to fasten with a peg; chev-illot, a toggle (the nautical term for a belaying-pin); chev-ill-ure, the branches on the horns of a deer, such being useful to the Palæolithic man as pins, pegs, and other tools.

Several of these words may indicate the necessity of holding the horse in restraint, such as the tethering of the animal with a long rope made of hair, at the further extremity of which would be a pin or peg driven firmly into the ground. If the horse was hobbled, a bone or wooden toggle would be used, in place of the buckle of to-day, to pass through the loop on either hobble, which was made of hair, or otherwise of raw hide. In hobbling the cow as mentioned above a similar toggle locked the short rope of hair after it had been passed several times round the beast's hind legs. I should say that the whole method of this proceeding, and the outfit, were remainders from bygone days, previous to the date when man discovered the use of iron and other metals.

La chev-ille des pied, the ankle (literally, the peg, pin, or bolt of the feet). At or near this part of a man the shackles (fer or chaines) were fastened on the prisoner, the equivalent to hobbles; but jambe is the shank, and the shank-bone, or tibia, is os de la jambe (or, literally, bone of the shank). This bone of the horse is named canon, which we also use in our term “cannon-bone.” Skeat derives canon through Anglo-Saxon canon; Latin, canon, a rule; Greek, Kaviv, a rod or rule, Kavi;, a (straight) cane. The cannon of war he derives through French canon, originally a gun-barrel, through or connected with Latin canna, a reed. I would assume this reed equivalent to a bamboo rod.

The French words are rather confusing in these terms as to what particular part of the leg is meant, for cheville du pied is the ankle, while qui a rapport aux chevilles is ankled (literally, that which is connected with the ankles); cou de pied (literally, neck of the foot) is the ankle-joint, but the ankle-bone is astragale, which, I suppose, is not the tibia, mentioned previously, but the part known anatomically under its Latin name talus, the ankle-bone (of animals, the pastern-bone or knuckle-bone). Talus was also used to denote the heel or foot. It would seem that in olden times this bone was used in place of dice—talaris, pertaining to the ankles, also to dice. These must be the bones—if I remember correctly five was the number—used by schoolboys to play knuckle-bone.

The pastern-bone of a horse would correspond with the third bone of the middle finger or toe of a man, and the cannon-bone with that of the foot or palm of the hand. The hock of a horse being equal to the human heel, it seems to me that the word indicates that the ancients realised what is not understandable by the majority of civilised persons to-day—that anatomically the hock of the horse was equal to the human heel. In Dutch hak is the heel.

Returning to the word cheval, a horse, and its connections, we have cheval de frise and chevaux de frise, a special or outlying or advanced military protection to a camping-place, which is an arrangement of iron spikes placed on the ground to confuse the charge of an attacking force. This in German is Spanische reiter and Frisische reiter, which Skeat says is, “Literally, horse or horses of Friesland—a jocular name.” So far as I remember, these were a number of iron spikes fastened to a central piece, or a ball of spikes, many of which were placed around the temporary camp, so as to injure the horses in case of a charge of cavalry by the enemy.

The French cavalé, a mare, is no doubt an altered variant of the Celtic capull, a horse. From capull comes the Latin caball-us; Greek, kaball-es, which is the more evident owing to the two latter words being without the feminine form. The correct names for horse are — Latin, equ-us; Greek, hipp-os, which leads to the inference that these two nations first became acquainted with the horse in an eastern country, and so imported an eastern name for the animal. Note Sanscrit acva (akva); Persian esp, a horse. Latin caball-us denoted a pack-horse, a small horse or pony.

To the French words cheval, a horse, and cavalé, a mare, we are indebted for many of the English terms denoting the higher classes of society and warlike actions, because in this case the horse was mainly used by the wealthy and for service in battle. The peasant or labourer did not use the horse to till the ground, or to plough, or to cart produce and effects, but used oxen.

It is worthy of special remark that the French have a distinct term to denote the shelter provided for the horse in écurie, when that for cattle (bestiaux) is étable, an ostler or stable-boy being valet d'écurie.

To house or stable cattle is établer, but of horses loger, from logis, a house or lodging, as seen in the signboard notice: “bon logis à pied et à cheval.”

We English speak of a partially enclosed building for cattle as a cowshed, but the Scotch have byre, a cowhouse, connected with Anglo-Saxon byre, dwellings, plural of bur, a chamber, a bower; Icelandic bur, a chamber. Here we form

an unexpected contact with the old days of chivalry in the familiar term “In my lady's bower.”

But we have a reverse picture in Dutch boer, A.-S. bur, gebúr, a peasant, from A.-S. buan, to till. Presumably the cultivation of the soil necessitated the husbandman dwelling or residing at that place, as seen in English neigh-bour, A.-S. néah-bur, one who dwells near to another.

From this vantage we can, as it were, realise the time when man and his oxen were housed under the one roof or fortified enclosure, being thereby protected from the depredations of enemies, whether man or predatory animals.

Before giving these names I may mention the Italian for horse is cavallo, while cavalla is a mare. The Latin equ-us and equ-a are obsolete, only showing in such terms as equ-i-tazione: French, equ-i-tation, riding; equ-i-seto, horse-tail, or “mare's-tails” (a river-weed), & c. The ordinary terms are caval-cata, riding; cavall-one, a large horse; cavall-ino, a colt: French, pouliche, poulin, bidet: Italian, cavall-ina, a filly; caval-acchio, a wasp (likely the horse bot-fly-Œstrus equi).

For names denoting nobility we have the Italian cavalier; French, chevalier, cavalier, a knight: Italian, cavall-eria; French, cheval-erie, knighthood: Italian, cavall-er-esca-mente, gallantly, gentleman-liks; French, de bonne grace. Here, to remark on the word “gentleman,” how few of us really appreciate the original and true meaning—that such a one by training is of kind actions and thoughts, and in the habit of conversing in a subdued tone of voice (i.e., gentle). At the close of the reign of Charles I we read of the war between the Royal subjects (the Cavaliers) and the Round-heads.

For the reverse picture: Italian, cavalier d'industria, French, chevalier d'industrie, a sharper, fortune - hunter, “soldier of fortune,” one who sells his fighting abilities to a foreign country. The old - time yeoman or farmers of the Scottish border were required by the terms of their lease to maintain one horse capable of carrying its owner a distance of twenty-five miles on a foray over the border and returning without obtaining any fodder during the time occupied by the raid. The knight of old—say, during the time of the crusades—was by his knightly oath constrained to order his conduct by certain rules of knighthood. He was to take no mean advantage against those contending with him in fight or in combat or in the tournament, was to succour or defend the oppressed (especially women), and was usually attended by an esquire or squire, who was generally a youth of good birth. The duty of the esquire was to see to the armour and destrier (war-horse) belonging to the knight whom he attended, & c.

Now, it is extremely curious to find that at a more distant date the word “knight” in kindred languages chiefly means “a groom,” one who attends to horses, as in German knecht, a man-servant; reiter, a rider, horseman; knecht, a groom: Dutch, knecht, a servant: Danish, knegt, a man-servant, the knave (at cards): Swedish, knekt, a soldier, knave (at cards): German, stall-knecht, an ostler; fuhr-knecht, an under-carter (from fuhren, to carry).

The original form of the word “esquire” dates back to the far-off time when chariots were drawn by a pair of horses, and at times carried three men in battle—one person was the driver, the second the warrior, while the third bore the shield (Latin, scut-um), and was named therefrom (scut-arius). This in French becomes ecu, a shield, and écuyer, a shield-bearer; but ecuyer is now used to denote “esquire,” “squire,” “equerry” (not from Latin equ-us, a horse), also “riding - master” and “rider,” and the English word “esquire” is derived therefrom. The French say, Il est bon ecuyer—he is a good horseman; ecuyère is a female equestrian performer; and ecuyer de cuisine is the chef or head cook in large establishments. A further explanation is found in titre donné en Angleterre au proprietaire le' plus influent, mais non noble, d'un village, which I translate—a title given in Britain to a freeholder, the most influential, but not a nobleman, in any village.

In German “shield-bearer” and “esquire” are given under the same words as schild-fuhren, schild-knappe, schild-knecht, schild-trager; but on letters wohl-geboren (of good birth, gentleman) is written as a title of courtesy in place of our British method of affixing “Esq.” to the addressee's surname. In German schild-burtig means of gentle blood.

Now, the aforementioned shield was formerly (that is, previous to the discovery of the process of mining and forging metals of bronze, iron, & c.) a tough portion of hide or skin secured to a light framework of vegetable material, such as willow or hazel twigs. This is readily seen in the etymology of the word cuir-ass, a breast-plate, from old French cuir-ace, a cuirass: French, cuir, leather: Italian, corazzo, a cuirass; corio, the skin; corame: Latin, corium, leather: Lithuanian, skura: Greek, chorion, a hide: from which also are the English words ex-cori-ate and scourge, and the Italian s-curi-ata and s-curi-ada, a scourge, a whip, which, after the manner of our stockwhip, would originally be made of raw hide. The Italian scuro (ob-scur-e), unknown, and scur-are, to become dark, seem closely allied to the above. Here the idea is “dark when shaded or covered up,” as in our two forms—hide, to cover (Anglo-Saxon, hyd-an), and hide, a skin, or more especially a flayed skin (Anglo-Saxon, hyd, the skin—

i.e., the cover; Latin, cutis; Greek, kutos and skutos, skin, hide; Sanscrit, sku, to cover; Latin, scutum; Greek, skutos, a shield). Then, in Italian we find scu-do, a shield, a buckler, an es-cut-cheon—i.e., a shield having a painted device or bearing the coat of arms of the user (German, wappen-schild). This is of a later date, at which time the knight carried his shield himself, and his esquire was not required to join the fray unless it was a general encounter of numbers, when he would fight for his own party with “sword and buckler.”

The Italian scu-da-jo was a maker of bucklers or shields, scuderia a stable, an equerry (French, écurie), and scudiere an esquire, gentleman of the horse (French, écuyer). Here we see a proof that the shield was shelter for the man and the stable was the shield or shelter for the horse. The horse therein was “shielded” from the weather. We probably have the same in Irish shielin(?), a hut or humble residence: Icelandic, skjol, a shelter, cover; skyli, a shed: Danish and Swedish, skjul, a shed: Anglo-Saxon, scild, a shield. Then we have the Italian scudo and French écu connected together as a so-called crown-piece—a piece of money, possibly made from stamped or embossed leather—which must go back to a very early date in the use of money—or promise to pay on receipt of a symbol (French, écuage, scutage, land-tax). “Scutage,” likely, is payment levied on the use of a coat of arms and family crest as shown upon the escutcheon or shield and panel of a carriage.

The word “equerry,” according to Skeat, is so spelt owing to a supposed derivation from Latin equ-us, a horse; it denotes “an officer who has charge of horses and stables.” “Properly, equerry means a stable, and modern English equerry stands for equerry-man, from French ecurie; old French, éscurie, a stable; low Latin, scuria, a stable; old High German, skúra, skiura (German, schauer), a shelter, a stable.”

In German stall-meister is given as an equerry, master of the horse, riding-master; stall-junge, an ostler, groom (stall, a stable; junge, lad or boy). This latter will remind us of the old custom of naming the postillion, or he who rode the near-side horse of the pair drawing a hired post-chaise or carriage, the “post-boy,” although he might be a man grown old and wrinkled in the service. Postillion: Italian, post-iglione—post-a, a place, a post-house, also post-o, the same; and postiere, a postmaster, all from Latin pon-ere, to place. The original meaning is “certain distances along a road at convenient length”—Latin, ponere, to place or fix a station or standing-place; sta-re, for sta-are, to stand; sta-bulum, a stable (for post-horses) where the traveller could change his tired team for fresh horses; sometimes also named a

“change-house” From this custom in course of years our wonderfully intricate “postal service” has been evolved.

Like the Kirghiz of the present day, old-time peoples-made great use of hides and skins, not only as personal clothing (note the sheep-skin clothing of the Russian peasant), but as a covering for their moveable shelter, used as houses or tents, and no doubt at inclement seasons the horse lived under the same shelter as his owner.

We would naturally assume that a currycomb would trace back to words referring to skin or hide, but Skeat says, “A hybrid word, made by prefixing con (Latin, con, cum) to old French roi, order,” and that “the old saying ‘to curry favour' is a corruption of mid-English ‘to curry favel’ (to rub down a horse). Favel was a common old name for a horse.

The philological results occasioned by the use of the horse as an agent to carry man from place to place with speed, and as a help in war, is well shown in the accompanying words in the German language, all derived from the word ritt, a ride, riding (from reiten, to ride): ritt-lings, astride, astraddle; ritt-meister, a captain of horse; ritter, a knight, a cavalier (also as a prefix, in composition, means “knight's,” “knightly,” of chivalry); ritter-akademie, an academy for young noblemen; ritter-burtig, of knightly descent; ritter-gut, a manor, a residence for a nobleman; ritter-lich (literally, rider-like), knightly, chivalrous; ritter-spiel, a tournament; ritter-kuss, gallantry; rittern, to knight, to contend (the allied word st-reiten, to combat, to fight, from reiten, to ride, may be here mentioned); ritter-saal, a hall where knights assemble; ritter-schaft, knighthood, chivalry, body of knights; ritter-sporn, the garden plant larkspur, and ritter-zug, adventures of a knight errant, a crusade. This list of words will amply support the contention that the horse has been a main agent in elevating the standard of humanity, the more especially owing to his being used to forward the religious mania of the Crusaders to recover Palestine from the Panim Saracens. German, kreuz-zug, the crusade, from kreuz, the cross, literally means “the expedition or march of the cross.”

The present Duke of Portland, as Master of the Horse, which, I believe, is a designation distinct from “equerry,” is thus spoken of in the Worksop Guardian just previously to the ceremony of the coronation of King Edward VII.: “The Duke of Portland has, of course, to hurry back to-town from Welbeck, his official duties on Saturday next demanding his presence there. The Duke has for some months past personally watched and supervised the arrangements which devolve upon his department, and the work is no sinecure. At the Royal Mews the Duke is very