Though the primal being of Maori myth was Io, the supreme god, yet it was not taught that he begat any other being, but, in some unexplained manner, he caused earth and sky to exist. These are personified in Rangi, the Sky Parent, and Papa, the Earth Mother, and these were the primal parents. Their progeny amounted to seventy, all of whom were atua, or supernatural beings, and among them was Tane, or Tane the Fertilizer, he who fertilized the Earth Mother, and who was the origin of man, of birds, fish, vegetation, minerals, &c.

All things that exist, saith the Maori, are a part of Rangi and Papa, the primal parents—that is to say, they originated with them. Nothing belongs to the earth alone, or to the heavens alone; all sprang from that twain, even unto the heavenly bodies that gleam on high, and the heavenly bodies of all the other skies above the one we see: and all those bodies are worlds.

It was taught in the tapu school of learning that water is one of the chief constituents or necessities of life. It is moisture that causes growth in all things, other necessary agents being the sun, the moon, and the stars. Lacking moisture, all things would fail on earth, in the heavens, in the suns, the moons, and the stars of all realms. Clouds are mist-like emanations originating in the warmth of the body of the Earth Mother. All things possess warmth and cold, all things contain the elements of life and of death, each after the manner of its kind. It was Tane (personified form of the sun) and Tawhirimatea (personified form of winds) who sent back the mists to earth in the form of rain, as a means of cherishing and benefiting all things, for all things absorb moisture, each after the manner of its kind. Air, moisture, warmth, with various forms of sustenance, were the origin of the different forms around us, of the differences in such forms, as in trees, in herbage, in insects, birds, fish, stones, and soils; these things control such forms, and their growth. Hence death assails all things on earth, in the waters, in the sun, the moon, and the stars, in the clouds, mists, rain, and winds; all things contain the elements of decay, each after the manner of its kind.

Again, there is no universal mode of life and growth among all things; each lives, moves, or grows after the manner of its kind. All things possess a home, or receptacle, or haven of some kind, even as the earth is the home of many things. Even the wairua (spirit) has its abode in all things; there is no one thing that does not possess a spirit or soul, each after the manner of its kind. And inasmuch as each and every thing possesses an indwelling spirit or soul, then assuredly everything possesses the elements of warmth, each after the manner of its kind.

Now, as all things in all the realms of the numberless worlds are so constituted, it follows that the female element pertains to all things. Everything has its male and female element. Lacking the female element, nothing could survive, for by such, combined with moisture, do all things acquire form, vitality, and growth. Warmth is another element by means of which things are nurtured, and earth supports all. Even stone is formed of earth, moisture, and heat, and so endowed with life and growth after the manner of its kind.

Now, as such was the intention of Io (the supreme being)—that is, to arrange the functions of all things—even so the denizens of the heavens were appointed as guardians and directors of all things in all the heavens, on earth, and in the heavenly bodies. The twelve heavens are connected with the moons, but the sun is above all—it is the controller of all things.

supernatural beings. They numbered seventy, and each had his own province and functions.

The most important of these children of Rangi and Papa, though not the eldest, was Tane, and he was the personified form of the sun, as will be shown in another paper. But Tane was also the Fertilizer—he who fertilized the Earth Mother, and so produced man and vegetation; hence he also personifies the male element, as well as forests, trees, &c. His daughter was Hine-titama, the Dawn Maid, who, on being pursued by Tane (the sun), fled from him, and so passed into Night, the underworld and spirit world. She became ruler of that realm of Night. And ever Tane is begetting offspring (Dawn Maids), who pass through their brief life in the upper world and then retire to the realm of Night. For Hinetitama had said to Tane, “Return, O Tane, to bring forth cur children to the world of Light, while I remain here to receive them, for their welfare shall be my care.” And ever does the Queen of Night battle with dread Whiro of the world of Darkness in order to protect her charges.

Another daughter of Tane was Hine-rau-wharangi, she who personifies growth in the vegetable world.

Whilst Tane is the personified form of the sun, the common vernacular term for the sun is ra, Ra Kura and Tama-nui-te-ra being honorific names for the sun. Tane-te-waiora personifies sunlight. In our crude translations of native myths we render “Waiora a Tane” as “life-giving waters of Tane.” This is quite wrong; in this connection waiora means sunlight, and it is so called because the Maori taught that the sun is the origin of life. This waiora is a concrete expression, not two distinct words, and is closely allied to the words vaiora of eastern Polynesia, meaning “to be, to exist.” The waning moon does not bathe in life-giving waters of Tane to regain her youth; she bathes in the sunlight of Tane, and so returns to us again young and fair—which may be termed a scientific fact.

The moon is personified in Hina-keha, or Pale Hina, and Hina is a farspread name for that orb, as also is that of ra for the sun, a name that in ancient times was known in Babylonia and Egypt. Hina, being a female, is not included among the children of Rangi and Papa. Rona is the maid in the moon, her full name being Rona-whakamau-tai, or Rona the Tide-controller. Rono, according to Fenton, was a name of the moon god in Assyrian myth. Here we find a parallel in Polynesia, where Rongo Longo, Lono, is evidently a personification of the moon. This is made clear in Hawaiian mythology, wherein Sina, personified form of the moon (cf. Sin of Babylonia), the Hina of New Zealand, on being translated to the heavens took the name of Lono.

Another of the primal offspring was Tu, he who personifies war and its attendant evils; he was an important departmental god. In Assyrian myth Tu represented the setting sun and death, while Ra-tum (the setting sun) was god of death in Egypt, and ra tumu denotes the setting sun in eastern Polynesia (Churchill's Easter Island, p. 126).

In opposition to Tu of evil fame we have Rongo, another of the seventy brothers, who personifies peace and the arts of peace, such as agriculture, and all fruits of the earth. Hence Rongo is appealed to in peace-making functions, and by cultivators of food products.

Another member of the family was Tawhirimatea, in whom are personified the winds of space. The personifications of wind number about thirty, each representing a different form. These are known as the Whanau Puhi (the Wind family).

Yet another of the brothers is the dread Whiro, he who personifies darkness, death, and evil. In the fierce war that waged between Tane (representing light and life) and Whiro (representing darkness and death) the latter was defeated. Hence he retired to the underworld, where he ever wages war against mankind and drags them down to death, while ever the former Dawn Maid, now Queen of the Underworld, strives against him for the souls of the dead.

In Tangaroa we have the personified form of fish, and he shares with Rona the task of controlling the ocean tides.

Te Ihorangi personifies rain, while Parawhenua-mea is the origin and personification of the waters of earth. The former was one of the primal offspring, but the latter, a female, was one of the daughters of Tane by Hine-tu-pari-maunga, the Mountain Maid; hence the streams seen descending from the great ranges. The offspring of Parawhenua-mea (water) was Rakahore, who represents rock, and who took to wife Hine-uku-rangi, the Clay Maid, and produced the personified forms of stones, such as Hine-tuakirikiri (Gravel Maid), and Hine-tuahoanga (Sandstone Maid), Hine-tauira (a form of flint), and many others. Another of the family was Tuamatua, who took to wife Wai-pakihi (Shoal Water), and begat different forms of stones, and sand.

Parawhenua-mea was taken to wife by Kiwa, guardian of the ocean, which is known as the Great Ocean of Kiwa. But the ocean is personified in one Hine-moana (Ocean Maid).

One Mahuika personifies fire. In the first place, fire emanated from the sun. When Tama-nui-te-ra (honorific name of the sun) decided to confer a benefit on man he sent them fire by, or in the form of, one Auahi-tu-roa (a personified form of comets). Mahuika had five children, and their names are those of the five fingers of the hand. (In Indian myth, Agni, the fire god, had ten mothers, who were the ten fingers of the hands.) These were the Fire Children, or family, and in the myth of Maui we see that Mahuika plucked off one of her fingers and gave it to him as fire. When pursued by Fire, Maui called upon Te Ihorangi (rain) to save him; hence rain fell, and fire fled for shelter to Hine-kaikomako (personified form of the kaikomako tree, Pennantia corymbosa). Thus is it that when man seeks to generate fire he hews a piece off the body of Hine-kaikomako whereby to procure it. The sister of Mahuika, one Hine-i-tapeka, represents the fire of the underworld—volcanic fire.

Now, the sun has two wives, Hine-raumati, or Summer Maid, the personified form of summer, and Hine-takurua, or Winter Maid, the personified form of winter. The latter is a fisher, and the former a cultivator of food products. The sun dwells half a year with the Summer Maid, and the other half with the Winter Maid. The offspring of the former is Tane-rore, whose dancing is the quivering appearance of heated air in the summertime. It is personified in Parearohi.

We have in Hine-ata a personified form of morning; of day in Hine-aotea; and of evening in Hine-ahiahi, the Evening Maid. All three are females. This is a Moriori myth.

In Hine-te-uira and Tama-te-uira we have personified forms of lightning one of each sex; and there are ten other such forms. Tawhaki also seems to be connected with lightning, as also was Mataaho.

Whaitiri personifies thunder, but each kind of thunderstorm has its own personified form, such as Rautupu, Whaitiri - pakapaka, Ku, Ea, Aputahi-a-pawa, Tane-matau, and others. Thunder is often personified

in Hine-whaitiri, the Thunder Maid. It will be noted that a considerable number of personified forms are of the female sex. Hine-kapua is the Cloud Maid.

Personifications of the rainbow are Kahukura, Uenuku, and Haere Uenuku was originally a person of this world. He dwelt on earth, where he attracted one Tairi-a-kohu (personified form of mist), who had come down from celestial regions in order to bathe in the waters of the world. She visited Uenuku only during the hours of darkness, and strictly forbade him to make her known to his people. So beautiful was she that Uenuku felt compelled to disobey her. By a cunning trick he delayed the departure of the Mist Maid, and so exposed her to the people, whereupon she deserted him and never again returned to earth. Uenuku was now disconsolate, and he set off in search of her. He traversed distant regions and many realms, but never again beheld the Mist Maid. Finally death came to him as he still sought her, and his aria, or visible form, is the rainbow we see in the heavens. Parallels of this curious myth are widely known in Europe and elsewhere, as shown in the writings of the late Andrew Lang.

A rainbow composed of bands of different colours has as many personified forms, each colour bearing its own name.

Hine-korako is the personified form of a lunar halo or bow.

Personified forms of the comet are Wahieroa, Tunui-a-te-ika, Upokoroa, Auahi-tu-roa, Taketake-hikuroa, Meto, Auroa, Unahiroa, and possibly Puaroa.^*

Fire is sometimes termed Te Tama a Upokoroa (the son of Upokoroa, the long-headed one), because the seed of fire was brought to earth by a comet, and hence Mahuika produced the Fire Children. These comet-names are suggestive in their meanings, as “long-headed” and “long-tailed.”

Personifications of meteors are Tamarau and Rongomai.

Hine-pukohu-rangi and Tairi-a-kohu are personified forms of mist, and Hinewai represents fine misty rain.

Ruaumoko represents earthquakes. He is the youngest child of the Earth Mother, but never came forth to this world. When he moves within the body of Papa an earthquake results.

Volcanic phenomena are represented by Hine-tuoi, Ioio-whenua, Hine-tuarangaranga, Te Kuku (or Te Pupu), Te Wawau, and Tawaro-nui.

The personified forms of wind and of rain are said to have cohabited, and their issue, twelve in number, represent different forms of snow, frost, hail, and ice.

In Wero-i-te-ninihi, Wero-i-te-kokota, Maeke, Kunawiri, &c., we have personifications of cold, and the first two are also star-names—stars marking winter months.

An old cosmogonic myth is that Te Ao (Day) and Te Po (Night) produced as offspring Oipiri and Whakaahu, or Winter and Summer, who were born in space; both are females. Oipiri, whose full name is Oipiriwhea, pertains to night, and her name has the same signification as that of Takurua-hukanui, or Cold-engendering Winter; she produces snow, ice, frost. Whakaahu belongs to the day, or to this world, which she represents. Both of these female personified forms were taken to wife by Rehua, he who personifies the heat of summer. Their attendants are ever contending against each other, but neither side ever gains a permanent victory. This

illustrates the struggle between summer and winter, which occurs often, but is never final. Tama-uawhiti, also known as Hiringa, represents Whakaahu—that is, summer. He is the same as Tama-nui-te-ra—that is to say, the sun—and he represents desire for knowledge, industry in procuring food-supplies, and other important activities. He is termed te puna o te matauranga (the source of knowledge). An old saying is, “Kotahi tangata ki Hawaiki, ko Whakatau anake; kotahi tangata ki Aotearoa, ko Tama-uawhiti” (There is only one person at Hawaiki—namely, Whakatau; there is one person at Aoteroa, Tama-uawhiti). This is equivalent to saying, “The most important being at Hawaiki is Whakatau; the most important thing in New Zealand is the sun”—as it probably was to a people coming from the tropics. It is probable that Whakatau is a personification, possibly of winter, for we have a sentence in the above myth that runs thus: “Whakatau was a warrior, equalling Oipiriwhea.” We have already seen that Whaitiri, Wahieroa, and Tawhaki, of Polynesian myth, are personifications, and Hema is a name for the south wind at Hawaii.

Whakaahu, Takurua, and Rehua are also star-names, whilst Oipiri seems to be connected with Pipiri, a double star that appears in June.

Tioroa represents winter, and Takurua is employed in a similar sense. Spring is personified in Mahuru.

We have seen that Hiringa (or Tane-i-te-hiringa) represents knowledge, but the acquisition of knowledge and the power of thought, mental activities, are personified in Rua-i-te-pukenga, Rua-i-te-hiringa, Rua-i-te-mahara, Rua-i-te-wananga, &c.

Space is personified in Watea and Rongomai-tu-waho, and misfortune in Aituā.

In personified forms of clouds we have Hine-kapua, Tu-kapua, Aoaonui, Aoaoroa, Uhirangi, and Takerewai, and these all dwell in the house called the Ahoaho o Tukapua (the open space of Tukapua). Here they ever dwell, for they are in fear of Huru-mawake, Huru-atea, Huru-nuku, and Huru-rangi (personified forms of the four winds), fearing to be jostled and swept away to the bounds of Rangi-nui (the heavens).

The two principal personified forms of wind are Tawhirimatea and Tawhiri-rangi. These personified winds in general, but each wind has its own personified form. The personified forms of ice, snow, and frost we have already encountered; they dwell upon the summit of Mahutonga (an emblematical term for the south), in the realm of Pārāweranui. The Wind Children of Tawhirimatea bring hither the semblance of those offspring in the drifting snow and driving hail. One Tonganui-kaea took to wife Pārāweranui (personified form of the bitter south wind) and produced some two dozen offspring, all of whom are personifications of different forms of wind. These are the Whanau Puhi, the Wind Children, who bore Tane to the twelfth heaven when he went to obtain the three baskets of occult knowledge.

The Wind Children abide at the Tihi o Manono, in Rangi-naonao-ariki (the tenth heaven, counting upwards), where also dwell their elder brethren, the personified forms of the four winds—north, south, east, and west. For there dwell Pārāweranui, Tahu-makaka-nui, Tahu-mawake-nui, and the other elders; all live in the houses Pumaire-kura, Rangitahua, Rangi-mawake, and Tu-te-wanawana-a-hau.

The plaza of the Wind Children is known as Marae-nui, as Tahuaroa, as Tahora-nui-atea. It is the marae of Hine-moana, the Ocean Maid, the vast expanse of the great ocean. This plaza is the playground of the Wind

Children. To this meeting-place they come from all parts to frolic and gambol on the broad heaving breast of the Ocean Maid. From the frigid south comes Pārāwera-nui, from the blustering west hurries Tahu-makaka-nui, from the east glides Tahu-mawake-nui, and from the fair north comes the marangai, while from every intermediate point the younger Wind Children troop forth to hold high revel on their great playground of Mahora-nui-atea, illuminated by Tane-te-waiora, or by the Whanau Marama, the Children of Light that gleam in cloudless skies when Tane has departed.

A list of the many personified forms of wind would be tedious, but some of the more prominent ones were Rakamaomao, Titi-matangi-nui, Titi-matakaka, and those given above.

Tane is the personified form of trees, for a reason already explained, and in this connection his name is Tane-mahuta—for Tane, like the old-time gods of Babylonia, has many names, according to his activities or manifestations.

When engaged in his great search for the female element Tane took to wife many beings, who produced trees. In many instances such beings are viewed as the personified forms of such trees. Thus Mumuwhango represents the totara, Te Puwhakahara the maire and puriri, Ruru-tangiakau the ake, Rerenoa the rata and all parasitic and epiphytic plants, Hine-waoriki the kahika and matai, Mangonui the tawa and hinau, Hine-mahanga the tutu, Hine-rauamoa the kiokio fern, and so on. Puahou represents the parapara, Poananga the clematis, while Hine-kaikomako we already know in her character of fire-preserver for mankind. Toro-i-waho represents all aka (climbing and creeping plants), Tauwhare-kiokio all tree-ferns, Putehue the gourd-plant, and Haumia the edible rhizome of the bracken.

Te Rara-taungarere seems to represent the fertility of trees and plants, while Rehua was also connected with forests; he is mentioned with Tane in connection with forests (White's Ancient History of the Maori, vol. 1, p. 145), and lehua was an old Hawaiian term for forest.

Tane, under the name of Tane-mataahi, represents all birds, though Punaweko is said to have been the origin and personification of forest-birds, and Hurumanu the same in regard to sea-birds. One Tane-te-hokahoka is also spoken of as one who brought birds into being; probably this is another name for the great Tane. Rupe personifies the pigeon.

In addition to these major personifications, we have, as in the case of trees, personified forms of different species of birds. Thus Terepunga and Noho-tumutumu represent the kawau or cormorant, Parauri the tui, Hine-karoro the seagull, Hine-tara the tern, Moe-tahuna the duck, Matuku the bittern, Tu-mataika the kaka parrot, Koururu the owl, and others might be given.

In regard to fish, we have Tangaroa, who represents all fish. Tutara-kauika represents whales. Puhi is the personified form of eels, Takaaho of sharks. Te Arawaru represents shell-fish.

Rakahore is the personified form of rock, and Rangahua seems to represent stones. These are the more important beings, but Hine-tuahoanga represents all forms of sandstone, Hine-one all sand. Poutini personifies greenstone in general, and is also a star-name. Hine-aotea, Hine-auhunga, Hine-tangiwai, Hine-kahurangi, Hine-kawakawa, and Taurra-karapa represent different kinds of greenstone, while Whatuaho and Mataa represent obsidian. These will suffice as illustrations.

Even swamps are personified in Hine-i-te-huhi and Hine-i-te-repo. South Island Maori state that Hine-tu-repo was the wife of Maui, and it was she who was interfered with by Tuna or Puhi, personified form of the eel. Maui himself seems to have personified day or daylight; hence his contest with Hine-nui-te-po, of the realm of darkness. Transform the eel into a snake, and in the inner reading of the Maui, Hine, and Tuna myth you have the true version of our borrowed myth of Eve and the serpent. This story also explains why the tail of an eel is known as hiku rekareka and tara-puremu. The name of the woman is usually given as Hina, a suggestive name.

The glow-worm is personified in Hine-huruhuru and Moko-huruhuru, the earth-worm in Noke, and the lizard in Rakaiora. One Peketua was the origin of lizards, and the first to appear was the tuatara. Peketua moulded some clay into the form of an egg, and took it to Tane, who said, “Me whakaira tangata” (Give it life). This was done, and that egg produced the tuatara. All land-birds were then produced from another egg, fashoned by Punaweko, and sea-birds from yet another, made by Hurumanu. Birds and tuatara had a common origin.

Maru is the personified form of some celestial phenomenon. Among the Awa folk of the Bay of Plenty Wainui is a personification of the ocean, and Tahu personifies food.

Though Whiro is the origin of death, &c., yet there are many personifications of different kinds of disease and misfortune. Among them are Maiki-nui, Maiki-roa, Maiki-arohea, Tahu-maero, Tahu-kumia, Tahu-whakaeroero, and Tahu-pukaretu. All these dread beings are the henchmen and agents of Whiro, the evil one. They dwell within Tai-whetuki, the abode of disease and death, which belongs to Whiro, and ever they afflict mankind. Thus does Whiro still continue his struggle against Tane, continuing to slay man, animals, trees—all things of this world that sprang from Tane. Thus is man destroyed in the upper world, and when his spirit reaches the underworld Whiro strives to destroy that also. Had not Hine-titama, the Daughter of Light, descended to the underworld, there to war with Whiro and so rescue the spirits of her children, then they would have been cast by Whiro into Tai-whetuki and Tai-te-waro, there to perish. When men of this world die, their spirits are drawn down to the underworld by Rua-toia and Rua-kumea, and are there received and protected by Hine. For, in the days when the world was young, when Hine fled from Tane, the sun god, her abiding words were, “I go to the lower realm that I may protect our descendants; to the underworld I will draw them down and cherish them; their spirit-life shall be my care. Maku e kapu i te toiora o a taua tamariki.”

But ever Maiki-nui and Maiki-roa lurk within Tai-whetuki, the House of Death, while Rua-toia and Rua-kumea convey the souls of men to the care of the Daughter of Light, erst the Dawn Maid.

There are two aspects of Maori myths, or two forms in which they are related. One of these is the common or “fireside” version, the other is the “inner” version, as conserved in the school of learning, and taught only to those entrusted with the task of preserving the esoteric knowledge of the elders of the tribe. These remarks do not apply to ordinary folk-tales, but to what may be termed the higher class of myths. The ordinary version of such myths is known to all members of the tribe, and may be related at any time or in any place. The other version is seldom heard, and is usually unknown to the bulk of the people.

As an illustration of this double aspect, we will take the case of the myth concerning the origin or cause of the ocean tides. The common version is that tides are caused by the inhalations and exhalations of a colossal marine monster known as Te Parata. The school of learning ignored this as a fable, and taught something nearer the truth—namely, that when all realms were being placed under the control of certain guardians the marama-i-whanake, or waxing moon, and Rona were appointed to control the tides of Hine-moana (personified form of the ocean). Again, the common version of the story of Rona is that she was transferred to the moon as punishment for having insulted that orb because one night its light became obscured when she was proceeding to fetch a calabash of water. She is yet visible in the moon, with her calabash by her side.

We have also the instance of Tane, whose many names were often inserted in genealogies showing the descent of man from the gods and the primal parents. The inclusion of these names as those of different beings was strongly condemned by the learned. The same remarks apply to Tiki and others.

We have given abundant evidence that the Maori was permeated with the spirit of animism and of animatism—that is to say, he believed in spiritual beings, and also attributed life and personality to things, but not a separate or apparitional soul as in the case of man. Yet the writer has heard statements made to the effect that the Maori possessed no power of abstract thought. Now, if there is one quality that the Maori did possess, it was that power.

In a brief account of Maori personifications it is impossible to give the various myths relating to them or in which they figure. We can only scan the long list and mention the more interesting of such personified forms. The following condensed account of one of the exploits of Tane will, however, serve to show how the wise men of yore handed these myths down, and how they taught racial beliefs to succeeding generations. Tane, the personified form of the sun, is necessarily the origin of light; hence he is spoken of as the enemy or opponent of Whiro, who personifies darkness. After a long contest and many battles on the horizon and elsewhere, darkness is defeated and retires to the underworld, though Whiro still wars against Tane. As the personified form of evil things, he causes his satellites, Maikinui and others, to assail the offspring of Tane, who succumb in their thousands. Tane, as personified form of knowledge, is called Tane-te-wananga; it was he alone who succeeded in ascending to the twelfth heaven, where he obtained from Io the three baskets of occult knowledge, a fact that was bitterly resented by Whiro. The latter, as the elder brother (darkness is older than light), objected to such treasure passing to the younger brother.

When about to make the great ascent, Tane went to Tawhirimatea and Huru-te-arangi and asked them for the services of their offspring, the Wind Children, to convey him to the heavens. The multitude of Wind Children assembled from all quarters to bear Tane to the heavens; from far-distant realms, from the great spaces of Tahora-nui-atea they came. They ascended to the upper regions, to arrive at the Cloud House, whence emerged the Cloud Children to join them in brave array. Now came the multitude of Peketua, the Whanau akaaka, the repulsive ones—insects, vermin, winged creatures—sent by Whiro to attack Tane. But the Wind Children guarded Tane; they furiously assailed the emissaries of Whiro, scattered them, and drove them afar.

Having gained possession of the three baskets of divine or esoteric knowledge—that of good, that of evil, and that of ritual—Tane began his descent to this world. He now assumed the name of Tane-i-te-wananga, as representing all knowledge, as being the fountain and source of knowledge. During his descent he was again attacked by the army of Whiro, and here he is alluded to as Tane-te-waiora, for it was Darkness attacking Sunlight. His attendants called upon the personified forms of wind, snow, hail, &c., who swiftly came and defeated the hordes of Whiro. Some of the latter were captured and brought down to earth, among them being Waeroa (mosquito) Namu-poto (sandfly), Naonao (midge), Ro (mantis), Moko-kakariki (green lizard), Pekapeka, Ruru, and Kakapo (all night-birds). Thus Tane returned safely to this world, bringing with him the great boon of knowledge for the benefit of his descendants, the people of the World of Light.

A study of the mythopoetic tales so frequently met with in Maori lore tends to show that such mental concepts are by no means to be classified as ordinary folk-tales. They are not merely metaphorical discourses or light allegorical fables, but often show that much thought has been devoted to the subject of the myth, to endeavour to discover cause or origin. The myth of Rona (the moon) and the tides illustrates this view, and other instances might be mentioned in which the Maori mind has approached near to scientific truth.

At the same time, man in the culture-stage of the Maori would never state baldly that the moon controls the tides. He must at least personify ocean and moon, for this curious faculty is one of the most remarkable and persistent features in the traditions and occult lore of uncultured peoples. We can even see survivals of such conceptions among highly civilized races, and we still cling to a few of the old-time personifications.

Neolithic man adopted this mode of teaching what he held to be primary truths. Having worked out his crude theories of the origin of the earth, of the heavenly bodies, of natural phenomena, of man, and of many other things, his mentality, strangely affected by long ages of contact with nature and by ignorance of natural laws, proceeded to depict all activities as anthropomorphic beings, and hence the Maori myths we have discussed in this paper. Uncultured man handed down his conclusions as prized knowledge to his descendants; he taught his children these myths, as we teach ours the moral lessons contained in Aesop's fables and in fairytales.

A. C. Parker struck at the root of personification when he wrote, “The primitive mind, believing all things the result of some intelligence, personifies and deifies the causes of effects, and thus has arisen the multiplicity of gods and guardian spirits.” Thus we have the many manifestations of the activities of Tane, the sun god and fertilizer. Even sunlight is personified in Tane-te-waiora, and in an old song we find the following:—

Ko te ata i marama,
Marama te ata i Hotunuku,
E, ko Tane-te-waiora … e.
(Fair dawned the morn,
Bright was the morn at Hotunuku,
Behold ! it is Tane-te-waiora.)

Explanatory myths teem in Maori lore, and are a characteristic feature of the peculiar plane of culture to which he had attained. The Maori was

a mystic by nature. He ever felt that he was part of a living world in which nothing is truly inanimate. He looked upon Mother Earth as the nourisher of mankind, her offspring; his outlook upon life and upon his surroundings differed much from ours; he possessed a feeling of kinship with nature, and a curious form of mental vitality, utterly unknown to the dweller by city streets.

The curious practice of attributing sex to things that possess none is very noticeable in Maori myths, and we ourselves have retained some survivals of this habit. The Maori held very singular beliefs as to the protective and destructive powers of sex, beliefs that seem to be also held by certain races of India. Animatism is marked by mental concepts of a very strange nature, which in many instances are most difficult to understand; of this fact many illustrations might be given.

These peculiarities of Maori mentality have the effect of making genuine old traditions, recitals, poems, and speeches of much interest, simply because they were reflected in the language of the people. The mythopoetic concepts passed into the common tongue; hence such matter as mentioned above teemed with allusions to personifications, with metaphor and allegory, with aphorisms and occult expressions. Here we encounter in a living language the figurative expressions and quaint sayings in which is preserved the mentality of uncultured man. Here are the fossilized thoughts of long-gone peoples, of past ages, being uttered by persons of our own day.

The better-class Maori was ever careful to acquire a knowledge of tribal history, of myth, tribal aphorisms and poetry, in order to adorn and point his speech. These folk were born orators, most punctilious in their utterance, and their formal speeches were marked by rhythm, by peculiar modes of diction, and by archaic and poetical expressions.

When Whare-matangi took leave of his mother, Uru-te-kakara, at Kawhia, in setting forth to search for his father, he said to her, “Farewell! Grieve not for me. Should I survive, then the sea-spray will assuredly return me to your side. Two nights hence, look you to the south; should the gleam of Venus be plainly seen, it will be my token to you that I have safely reached my destination. If you see it not, then know that Aitua has struck me down, by the hand of man or by Maikiroa. Then do you send me kindly greeting by means of the kura awatea,^* that I may be comforted by it in Rarohenga” (the spirit world).

When Ngarue and his wife were separated, and he departed for Taranaki, he said to her, “Farewell, the breast-clinging spouse ! Shame gnaws at me like unto the gnawing of the Ocean Maid into the flanks of the Earth Mother. It is like a fire burning within me. Even my love for you pales before it. Farewell ! Remain at your home with your elders. Think not of me, though I will ever greet the mists that hang over Parininihi and conceal you from me. And now the swift-running stream can never return to its source. Farewell ! The gnawing of affection is a grievous affliction, but by Te Ihorangi was Mahuika destroyed. Farewell ! In the summer of our days we part as the Dawn Maid parted from the Sun God.”

In these notes we have endeavoured to explain the Maori genius for personification, and to throw some light on his modes of thought. For

The blockhouse is in a good state of preservation, the timber sound and still showing in places the marks of the circular saw; it was probably cut in Cruickshank's mill, the first to be erected in this vicinity, which produced some fine totara timber, The ground floor is divided into two rooms, the larger one containing the staircase, as also a small room in the south-west corner, like the sergeant's cubby-hole in a military barrack-room. Four sides of the ground floor present loopholed walls, the two interior walls being blank, save for the doorway and two windows as shown. There are twenty-four loopholes, as marked, not including three higher up to be occupied by persons stationed on the staircase. These loopholes are rectangular, formed with 1 in. timber, with the smaller end outward, the inner and larger orifice being 8 in. by 6 in. Some are still plugged with the original tompions—solid blocks of timber. The walls are flush-lined with 1 in. boards, and the outside weatherboarded with the same; studs, 6 in. The interior space is filled with fine gravel.

The upper floor is in one room, and is pierced with loopholes all round, on all six faces. The southern end has but two loopholes, but the two windows there are probably modern and not a part of the original plan. The west and north faces have each eight loopholes. The two interior walls have three each, two long vertical ones and a small square one between them. Two of these appear in the illustration. Not being a disciple of Vauban, the writer is unable to explain why these elongated loopholes should appear in two walls only, and those both interior faces. On the outer side these loopholes are 36 in. by 3 in., but the inner part is wider.

The blockhouse is built on piles, and roofed with corrugated iron; height of walls, 18 ft.

The magazine was a small building, 9 ft. by 5 ft. in size, originally lined, and probably with gravel-filled walls. Outside the blockhouse is a small ditch of unknown use, for presumably the stockade did not extend along outside the north and west sides of the blockhouse. The place seems to have been used as a residence at some time, and a stove has been used in the upper floor. Again, the place seems to have been utilized as a chicken-ranch at no distant period.

The well was covered over with timber, as it appears in the photograph (Plate II, fig. 2). The bastion shows no signs of having contained any small flanking blockhouse, such as we constructed in Taranaki as late as the “seventies.” From the trench outside the bastion a covered drain runs to a stream-channel, evidently designed to carry off storm-waters from the trench. A part of the outer scarp of the trench at the south corner of the bastion has been neatly faced with stones, reminding one of the Koru pa at Oakura.

No trace of a parapet is seen on the eastern and northern faces of the defence; the interior of the defended area is level ground, which extends far out on all sides.

(An outpost of singular form was erected at Taita in 1846, and was occupied by Militia for some time. The following appeared in the Wellington Independent at the time: “The troops and native allies in the Hutt have been forming an entrenched camp at Taita, in the shape of two squares connected at an angle of each, and having a communication from one to the other.” The main post of that period was Fort Richmond, at the Bridge, Lower Hutt.)

The Australian and New Zealand Gazette of the 17th October, 1860, contains the following: “The natives in the Wellington district still continue quiet, but the settlers are, as they ought to be on the alert. The

murders. The natives demanded the surrender of the youth, which, of course, was refused. Crozier was replaced by Midshipman John Carnegie. During the months of April and May, 1847, good work was done by the gunboat. On the 19th May, in consequence of the gunboat being injured from its own firing, Lieutenant Holmes moved his 12-pounder on board the “Governor Grey” (Plate IV, fig. 1), a Wanganui-built schooner of 35 tons, from whose unbarricaded deck he continued to fight until the enemy retired.

Captain J. H. Laye, 58th Regiment, who commanded the forces at that time, reported to the Governor, “To Lieutenant Holmes I am exceedingly obliged; the efficiency of the gunboat under his command (which was exposed to the fire of the enemy the whole of the day), his alertness with her at all times, and cordial co-operation, I am only too happy to bear testimony to.”

In a despatch from Wanganui dated the 21st February, 1848, Major Wyatt, O.C., states, “The repairs to the gunboat are progressing.”

On the outbreak of hostilities in the Taranaki Province in 1860 the Government advertised for two vessels suitable for gunboat service. In April the schooner” Ruby,” 24 tons, recently launched from a shipbuilder's yard, was purchased by the Defence authorities, renamed” Caroline” (Plate IV, fig. 2), and armed with a 32-pounder gun, and a supply of ammunition from H.M.S. “Elk.” The cost of the schooner was £630; the cost of stores, fittings, and the cannon, £300. Mr. Smyth, of H.M.S. “Niger,” who had distinguished himself at the attack on Waireka, near New Plymouth, was appointed to the charge of the gunboat. He hoisted the pennant on the 14th April, 1860, and sailed from Auckland for Manukau on the 17th April. Mr. Hannibal Marks, “an old, experienced, and dauntless seaman, who knew every nook and inlet of the coast,” was appointed pilot and sailing-master, being later appointed to command. The vessel acted as guardship on the Manukau Harbour, also being used as a despatch-boat between that port and New Plymouth. Later, she was transferred to Auckland, where she was chiefly used as a despatch-boat. I can find no record of her being engaged in any action. Her commission ended on the 12th October, 1863, and she was sold out of the service, the purchaser being Captain Davidson. Her name was changed back to “Ruby,” and for many years she traded between Wellington and Kaikoura. She was wrecked off Jackson Head in 1879.

An urgent call for help had been sent to Australia, and in reply the Government of Victoria had lent its warship, the steam-sloop “Victoria,” Captain Norman, which arrived at New Plymouth on the 3rd August, 1860, bringing Major-General Pratt, C.B., Commander of the Forces in Australia, and his staff. General Pratt took command of the troops in Taranaki until the arrival of Lieut.-General Cameron in May, 1861, when he returned to Australia in the “Victoria.” The “Victoria” also brought a detachment of troops from Australia during this period, and was engaged on the coast on various duties, including the transferring of refugees from New Plymouth to other ports. Officers and men from this vessel took part in some of the Taranaki land engagements.

On the 28th March, 1860, Captain Peter Cracroft, H.M.S. “Niger,” with a force of sixty men and a 24-pounder rocket-tube, landed and captured the Maori pa at Waireka, Taranaki, incidentally relieving a party of Volunteers who were in difficulties. This is the action in which Seaman William Odgers won the first Victoria Cross to be awarded for service in New Zealand. He was the first man to enter the pa, and he hauled down

the Maori flag. He was promoted to be a warrant officer by the Admiralty on the 26th June, 1860, and the Cross was presented to him on parade at Devonport, England, July, 1862. Lieutenant Blake, who, with some men of the “Niger,” took an active part in the military operations, was promoted to be commander for his services, later taking command of H.M.S. “Falcon” on the New Zealand station. The “Niger” had shelled the Warea Pa on the 20th March.

A Naval Brigade under Captain (later Commodore) F. Beauchamp Seymour, afterwards Lord Alcester, was stationed at Waitara, where Captain Seymour was wounded, June, 1860, at the attack on the Puketakauere Pa. The brigade, which was in service 1860–61, was composed of men and officers from H.M. ships “Niger,” “Pelorus,” “Cordelia,” “Iris,” “Elk,” and the Victorian steam-sloop “Victoria.”

In 1862 the Government purchased the paddle-steamer “Avon” for £2,000. This steamer, which was 60 ft. in length, 14 horse-power, 27 tons register, and drawing 3 ft. of water, had been brought from England in sections and put together at Lyttelton in 1861. She had been engaged in the trade between Lyttelton, Heathcote, and Kaiapoi. On the 22nd November she left Lyttelton in charge of Lieutenant Easther with a crew of fifteen men from H.M.S. “Harrier,” in tow of that vessel. Lieutenant Easther retained command until the close of the Waikato War. Mr. Ellis, who is still living (1920) in Auckland, was engineer. The vessels arrived on the 26th November at Onehunga, where the “Avon” was refitted and armoured for service on the Waikato River. She assisted in the rescue of survivors from the wreck of H.M.S. “Orpheus,” on the Manukau bar, 7th February, 1863, the men being transferred from the steamer “Wonga Wonga,” which happened to be crossing the bar at the time of the disaster.

The “Avon” was towed to the Waikato Heads on the 25th July, 1863, by H.M.S. “Eclipse,” Commander Richard C. Mayne (Plate V, fig. 1). Thirty men were transferred from the “Eclipse,” and Commander Mayne took the “Avon” up the river to the Bluff—a little below where Mercer now stands. On the 6th August Captain Sullivan, H.M.S. “Harrier,” senior naval officer in New Zealand, took the vessel on a reconnaissance as far as Meremere, where the Maori opened fire, which, on completion of observations, was replied to from the “Avon's” 12-pounder Armstrong gun and a 12-pounder rocket-tube.

While the “Avon” was being fitted at Onehunga four large barges were brought overland from Auckland. These were also armoured with an iron-plate covering, and pierced for rifles and sweeps, or oars, this work being done under the superintendence of Captain Mercer, R.A., who was later killed at Rangiriri.

The “Avon” was on service during the course of the Waikato War. On the 18th February, 1864, through striking a snag in the Waipa River, she became partly submerged. She was used for a time as a coal-hulk at Port Waikato, which in those days was a busy place, with building and repairing shops. Later the “Avon” was renamed “Clyde,” and was occupied in mercantile trading in the run between Tamaki and the Thames. In 1876 her paddles were dismantled and twin screws substituted. She was broken up in Auckland about 1883.

In 1860 a small paddle-steamer, the “Tasmanian Maid,” 53 tons register, 36 horse-power, which had been trading between Nelson, Wairau, and Wellington, was sent over by the Nelson people to bring the women and children from New Plymouth if necessary. She was then used as a

despatch-boat between New Plymouth, Waitara, and Onehunga. In 1862 she was engaged in trade from Auckland to Coromandel, and about Auckland Harbour. In June, 1863, she was purchased by the Government for £4,000. She was renamed “Sandfly,” and armoured, being also armed with two 12-pounder Armstrong guns. Lieutenant Hunt, H.M.S. “Harrier,” hoisted the pennant on the 23rd June, 1863, and his crew consisted of twenty-two men from the warships. On the 12th October Captain Marks, of the gunboat “Caroline,” was transferred to the “Sandfly,” while Lieutenant Hunt was transferred to the paddle-steamer “Lady Barkly,” which had been purchased by the Government and partially plated, when it was decided that she was unfit for service, as intended, on the Waikato River. She was used for transport work in and from the Manukau Harbour. The “Lady Barkly” is still (1920) running on the coast as a screw-steamer under the name “Hina.” The “Sandfly” was stationed on the east coast of the North Island, her headquarters being Auckland. She took part in the blockade of the Firth of Thames and the Tauranga campaign. She captured on the 31st October the cutter “Eclair,” a vessel of about 20 tons, owned by the Maori, and loaded with provisions. In 1865 the “Sandfly” was sold by the Government, after a short service about Cook Strait transporting troops to Wanganui, and doing a little survey work for the Cook Strait submarine cable. The new owners changed her name back to “Tasmanian Maid,” and she was wrecked off New Plymouth on the 16th January, 1868.

In 1863 the Imperial Commissariat Department purchased the 80-horsepower steamer “Alexandra” for transport work. She cost £13,000, and was also wrecked somewhere near New Plymouth, 9th August, 1865. In 1863 the Government owned a sailing gunboat, “Midnight,” but I have not been able to trace her commission, except that she appears to have been on service on the east coast, north of Auckland.

In a memorandum dated 20th October, 1863, the Minister of Defence stated, “Towards the end of 1862 the Government determined to place a small steamer on the Waikato, and after some inquiry the ‘Avon’ was purchased for the purpose. Her draught of water is too great to be available as is desirable; but, notwithstanding this disadvantage, the vessel has been of great service. The importance of having a suitable steamer for the navigation of the Waikato determined the Government to have such a vessel constructed in Sydney, and after many delays and much anxiety the gunboat ‘Pioneer’ (Plate VI, fig. 1) has been obtained—a vessel, it is believed, well adapted for the purpose.” The “Pioneer” was launched from the shipyard of the Australian Steam Navigation Company, Pyrmont, Sydney, on the 16th July, 1863, having been under construction for a period of about seventeen weeks, the superintending engineer of the work being Mr. T. Macarthur, of the company's staff. A report in a local paper, the Empire, says, “Yesterday morning there was launched from the A.S.N. Co.'s patent slip, Pyrmont, a rifle gunboat for the New Zealand Government, and intended for the service of the inland waters of the Waikato district. She is intended to carry 300 men, on a light draft of water. Her dimensions are 140 ft. in length, 20 ft. beam, 8 ft. 6 in. depth of hold, and draws only 2 ft. 6 in. of water. She will be propelled by an overhanging stern wheel, 12 ft. diameter, 7 ft. broad, driven by two engines, each 30 horse-power. She is constructed of ⅜ in. iron, which is pierced for rifles, and which will render her ball-proof. She is fitted with watertight

compartments. The boilers were placed 54 ft. forward of the engines for the purpose of keeping the vessel on an even keel.” The Empire of the 15th September further reports, “On the vessel's trial trip her speed was tested from Fort Denison to Bradley's Heads, a distance of 1 mile and 150 yards A smart N.E. breeze prevailed, but with this disadvantage the distance was run down in 8 minutes 12 seconds, and up in 6 minutes 53 seconds, giving a speed of nearly 9 knots, with 32 revolutions per minute, with 60 1b. on pressure of gauge, and a very small consumption of coal. Her speed exceeded the builder's expectations by one mile per hour. She is fitted with two sliding keels—one forward, one aft. The officers' cabins are situated aft, and the soldiers' apartments forward; they are very large and lofty. She has a flush deck, on which are placed two cupolas, 12 ft. in diameter and 8 ft. high, each pierced for rifles and 24-pounder howitzers. The commander's station was in a turret above the engine-room, which was also shot-proof and placed aft.” She was provided with space for the storage of 20 tons of coal, and it is interesting to note that while on the Waikato she used local coal, being the first steamer to do so. The Hon. (later Sir) Francis Dillon Bell, a member of the Ministry, represented the New Zealand Government on the occasion of the “Pioneer's” trial. For the trip to New Zealand the stern wheel was removed, and three masts provided to carry sail. The cost of construction was £9,500.

After shipping a supply of ammunition, consisting of 60 cases shot and shell, 600 cartridges for 24-pounders, 1,000 tubes, 10,000 Terry's rifle cartridges, 12,000 caps, and 18,000 revolver-cartridges, the “Pioneer,” in tow of H.M.S. “Eclipse,” left Sydney on the 22nd September, reaching Onehunga on the 3rd October, after a rough trip. The officers attached to the vessel for the trip were Lieutenant G. R. Breton, late of H.M.S. “Iris”; Lieutenant O'Callaghan, H.M.S. “Miranda”; and Mr. Jeffrey, engineer; with a crew of twenty-five men. On the 24th October the “Pioneer,” with two companies of seamen from H.M.S. “Curaçoa,” was towed by H.M.S. “Eclipse” to the Waikato. At the same time the four armoured barges, or gunboats, were also taken to the river. While on active service each of the gunboats was in charge of an officer from H.M.S. “Curaçoa.” I am informed by Admiral Hammick (then a sublieutenant), who was in charge of one, which was named the “Ant,” that one was commanded by Midshipman C. S. Hunt, who had been saved from H.M.S. “Orpheus” when that vessel was wrecked on the Manukau bar; another was in charge of Midshipman F. Hudson. The fourth, which was named the “Midge,” was commanded by Midshipman Foljambe. Mr. Foljambe in his Three Years on the Australian Station (1868) tells us that the boat was armed with a 12-pounder gun and a 4.4 in. brass Cohorn mortar, and carried a complement of seven men. These boats were used in the different operations on the Waikato and its branches, and also in carrying stores. Mr. Foljambe was the father of the late Governor-General of New Zealand, Lord Liverpool.

On the 29th October the “Pioneer,” piloted by Mr. Chandeler, and flying the broad pennant of Commodore Sir William Wiseman (“Curaçoa”), after landing at Whangamarino, which commanded the Maori position at Meremere, two 40-pounder Armstrong guns, brought by the “Curaçoa” from Sydney, conveyed Lieut.-General Cameron, commander of the troops in New Zealand, on a reconnaissance. (Plate V, fig. 2.) Shots were exchanged, but no damage was sustained by the vessel, which returned to headquarters. On the 31st October the “Pioneer” again proceeded up the river as far as Rangiriri, the Maori stronghold. A spot about six

miles above Meremere was selected as a landing-place for a force of 640 men and twenty-one officers, with two 12-pounder Armstrong guns This force was embarked on the “Pioneer” on the 1st November, and landed without opposition During the afternoon it was found that the Maori had abandoned their position at Meremere, which was then occupied by a party of 250 seamen, under Commander Mayne (“Eclipse”), and 250 men of the 12th and 14th Regiments, under Colonel Austin, from Koheroa. This force was reinforced next day by detachments from the 12th, 14th, 18th, and 70th Regiments, amounting to 500 men.

On the 20th November General Cameron, with a force of 860 men, attacked Rangiriri. To assist in the operations an additional 300 men of the 40th Regiment were embarked on the steamers, to be landed at a selected point, so that they might make an attack on the rear of the main line of the Maori entrenchments while the main body attacked in front. Owing to the wind and current the “Pioneer” and “Avon,” with two of the gunboats, were not able to reach the landing-place decided upon. After a preliminary barrage by the Royal Artillery 12-pounders, under Captain Mercer, and the naval 6-pounder, under Lieutenant Alexander (“Curaçoa”), the main body attacked the main line of entrenchments and drove the enemy to the centre redoubt, while the party of the 40th Regiment, who had been landed sufficiently near to reach their position, were able to pour a heavy fire on a body of Maori, who were driven from their position and fled towards the Waikare Lake, where a number of them were drowned. The centre redoubt, still holding out against the troops, was attacked by a party of thirty-six men of the Royal Artillery, under Captain Mercer, who was mortally wounded, then by a party of ninety seamen under Commander Mayne, who was wounded. Both attempts were unsuccessful, as was another by a party of seamen under Commander Phillimore (“Curaçoa”), who used hand-grenades. As it was now nearly dark, the General decided to wait until daylight, when it was found that the white flag had been hoisted, and 183 Maori surrendered. Midshipman Watkins (“Curaçoa”) and five men of the Naval Brigade were killed; while, in addition to Commander Mayne, Lieutenants Downs (“Miranda”) and Hotham (“Curaçoa”) (afterwards Admiral Sir C. F. Hotham) and five men were wounded.

In a letter from Ngaruawahia dated the 4th December Wiremu Tamehana (William Thompson), the Maori leader, said that he had lost all his guns and powder. “It is your side alone which is still in arms—that is to say, the steamer which is at work in the Waikato, making pas as it goes on; when they finish one, they come a little farther and make another. Now, then, let the steamer stay away; do not let it come hither. That is all.” But, as the Maori king's flag had been hoisted at Ngaruawahia in the first place, it was decided that the Queen's flag should fly there.

On the 2nd December General Cameron moved on from Rangiriri. As the outlets from Lake Waikare were not fordable, the troops, with their tents and baggage, were conveyed up the river in boats manned by seamen of the Royal Navy, under Commander Phillimore. The following day the troops again moved on, and encamped abreast of the island of Taipori. Here General Cameron was delayed, waiting for provisions, until the 7th, when he moved the camp about five miles farther up the river, and met the “Pioneer,” which had safely passed the last shoal below Ngaruawahia. Next day he went with Commodore Wiseman in the “Pioneer” to Ngaruawahia, which he found to be deserted. He immediately returned to the camp, and, after embarking 500 men of the 40th and 60th Regiments,

again proceeded up the river, and landed at Ngaruawahia, where he established headquarters. On the 26th December 300 men of the 50th Regiment left Onehunga on the transport “Alexandra” and the chartered steamer “Kangaroo” for Raglan. On the 28th, 250 men of the Waikato Militia, under Colonel Haultain, embarked on the steamer “Lady Barkly” for the same destination.

The memorandum of the Defence Minister, dated the 20th October, 1863, stated, “But so strongly has the necessity been felt for providing means for commanding the navigation of this important artery of the country, and for preparing means of communication with the military settlers to be located in the Waikato country, and of transporting the necessary supplies, that two smaller steamboats of very light draft of water have been ordered to be constructed in Sydney. These vessels are being constructed of iron. They will be brought from Sydney in sections, on board a vessel laden with coal, direct to the Waikato River, and put together at the Waikato Heads. These two boats are also specially designed of great power, so as to be used as tugs, and thus provide means of transporting supplies up the river.”

These two boats were named “Koheroa” and “Rangiriri,” probably after the two actions fought on the Waikato. (Plate VI, fig. 2.) The builders were Messrs. p. Russell and Co. A Sydney newspaper, in describing one of the boats, said, “This boat, which can easily turn in the space of a little more than her own length, may follow the bendings of such a river as the Waikato in its narrowest part, and may either be used as a steam-tug, towing flats for the conveyance of troops, or may be armed with a gun at each of the singular-looking portholes, which are closed with folding doors, in the middle of the lower deck; while the bulwarks on each side are pierced with twenty or thirty loopholes for rifle shooting.” The “Koheroa” was built in less than six weeks from the time the contract was received from Mr. James Stewart, C.E., who had been sent to Sydney by the New Zealand Government to superintend the construction. The sections of the “Koheroa” were brought from Sydney to Port Waikato by the steamer “Beautiful Star.” The first bolt was riveted on the 4th January, 1864, and the vessel was launched on the 15th. I can find no record of these boats being engaged in hostilities, but they were used for transport work for some time.

By the end of January, 1864, General Cameron's headquarters had been moved to Te Rore, on the River Waipa, from which, on the 20th February, with a force that included a naval detachment of 149 men and ten officers, he moved across the Mangapiko River to Te Awamutu, where headquarters were established. During the last few days of this campaign (February, 1864), while the “Avon” was patrolling the river, a shot reached the vessel and killed Lieutenant Mitchell, H.M.S. “Esk.”

From Ngaruawahia Commodore Wiseman and a party of naval and military officers went up the Horotiu River a distance of twelve miles, then transferred to the “Koheroa,” and, proceeding twenty-two miles farther on (to near the site of the present town of Cambridge), located the Maori position, and returned. This incident ends the story of the British Navy on the Waikato River, though the steamers were used for some time longer on transport duty. Colonial crews were placed on board, and the Naval Brigade's operations were transferred to the Tauranga district.

General Cameron transferred his headquarters to Tauranga on the 21st April, 1864. Reinforcements, which had been sent from Auckland on

The whole country in the vicinity of Lake Tekapo has been heavily glaciated. Extensive areas of the lower levels are masked by a veneer of moraine; large travelled blocks everywhere dot the landscape, and some are exposed, partially submerged, along the shores of the lake. Owing to the completeness of this covering, exposures of rock in situ are rare below the steep slopes of the mountains. Scoured and grooved surfaces and smoothed landscapes are visible at higher levels. Numerous shelves of comparatively small elevation are characteristically developed as the valley widens out, especially on the section between Coal River and the Macaulay. These are strongly reminiscent of those to be seen near the Potts River in the Rangitata Valley, and near Lake Heron in the valley of the Upper Ashburton. In these cases the type of sculpture is associated with the erosion of a valley which has been at one time filled with non-resistant Tertiary sediments. Farther up-stream, however, a modified form of this sculpture is apparent where the ice has overridden the end of the spur between the Macaulay and the main valley, the rock being entirely greywacke, so that it is not dependent altogether on the presence of easily eroded rocks. A feature similar to this is recorded by Park (1909, p. 19) as occurring near Ben More, in the Wakatipu district. In this case, however, he attributes the feature entirely to glacier erosion, whereas the Tekapo occurrence seems partly due to erosion and partly to the deposit of morainic matter on the shelves so formed.

The extreme freshness of the evidence of ice-action suggests that the retreat of the ice was comparatively recent, a fact which is emphasized by the modifications of the valley-sides. The youthful stage of the drainage of some of the tributary creeks, too, with their deep, narrow, rock-bound gorges incised into the abraded surfaces, so smooth by contrast, strongly supports the hypothesis that the ice has but recently retreated from this region. This feature is specially well exhibited in the Waterfall Creeks, which enter the Macaulay from the east, just at the point where it is emerging from the rocky precipitous country on to the down area which lies on the flank of Mount Gerald.

One somewhat surprising feature is the absence of halting-stages in the retreat. There are no terminal moraines apart from the great one at the foot of the lake, and the coating of angular material seems to be somewhat thin. It is as if the ice disappeared simultaneously from long stretches of the valley and dropped the covering of moraine which then masked its surface. This loose material would be rapidly occupied by plants from the adjoining open spaces, so that the formation of a plant covering should not lag long behind the disappearance of the ice. The rapidity with which a bare shingle river-bed is covered with vegetation shows that no objection can be raised to the hypothesis of a recent rapid retreat of the ice on the ground that plants would not have had time or opportunity to spread and establish themselves on the glacier-swept areas. The evidence of rapid retreat with few or no halting-places is observable in the valleys of the other main rivers of Canterbury, especially the Rakaia and the Waimakariri.

On the higher country the usual forms resulting from glacial sculpture are to be seen, notably corries in all stages of complete and arrested development and of destruction by present-day ice and frost. The cirques, originally heading them after the retreat of the ice, are attacked by these agencies, the clear-cut walls disappear, the hollows becoming filled with debris. Especially is this the case when they are partially filled with snow Rocks roll down its frozen surface, especially in winter, and accumulate

Two exposures of Tertiaries are recorded for the first time from this district—(1) that in Coal River, and (2) that occurring on the western side of the Macaulay River on the Sibbald Range.

(1.) Coal River.—Exposures of sands and clays with coal occur in several places in the deep gorge which Coal River has incised in the down country to the north-east of the lake, and chiefly in the vicinity of the right-angle bend which the stream makes as it leaves the Richmond Range and runs straight to the north-eastern corner of the lake. The exposures, five in number, occur in places along the two miles of gorge stretching both above and below the bend, but they are so masked by moraine that they cannot be traced away from the stream, and the relations of the individual outcrops to each other are obscure. The exposure lowest in the course of the stream is distant about three miles from the road-crossing. Here are exposed greyish-white sands of uncertain thickness, capped by gravels, brownish owing to the presence of iron-oxide, which are apparently unconformable; above them lies morainic matter.

On the north side of the river, at the bend, occur sands and sandy clays weathering white or stained brown. The strike is apparently N. 10° W., and the dip to the east 35°, but there is some doubt about this observation. On the south side of the river, about 100 yards up-stream, are sandy clays with carbonaceous shales; and farther up still, at the mouth of a small creek coming from the Richmond Range, there is a patch of much-slipped country showing sands and sandy clays, some with distinct greenish tint.

After the intervention of a barrier of greywacke, capped in places by white sands, similar beds to those just mentioned occur nearly a mile up-stream on the south side. The following sequence occurs here, in ascending order: (1) White sandy clay, 4 ft.; (2) clays with reddish tinge, 8 ft.; (3) impure lignite, with carbonaceous shale, 2 ft. 6 in.; (4) argillaceous sands, stained brown in the lower part, yellow above, 15 ft.; (5) whitish sands, thickness uncertain. These are capped by brownish gravels, which may be conformable, but the exposure is so limited that it cannot be determined for certain These are succeeded unconformably by moraine.

The strike of the beds is north, with a dip to the east of 45°. This patch of sedimentaries has a fault-contact on the south-east margin with the older beds, the fault running north-east and south-west, and its continuation may account for the presence of the beds in the bend of the creek, as their south-eastern border has the same line as the fault. This patch owes its preservation, in all probability, to having been faulted down, and having thus been preserved from erosive agents. How far it extends under the morainic material to the north and south of the river is quite uncertain but brown gravels similar to those occurring near the stream are exposed farther north on the western slope of Mount Gerald, which suggests a continuation of the beds in that direction.

(2.) Stony Creek Beds.—These beds lie on the floor of a corrie on the western side of the Macaulay Valley, which is drained by Stony Creek. They lie about 4,000 ft. above the sea. There are two occurrences, separated by a barrier of greywacke. The lower one consists of the following beds, in ascending order: (1) White argillaceous sand; (2) greenish sandy clay; (3) brown coal, 2 ft. 6 in. thick, striking north and south, and dipping west 35° (the coal contains pieces of ambrite); (4) whitish sand, with yellow stain; (5) white sand, very fine in grain, with small amount of clay; (6) grey sandy clay.

The country is much slipped and the deposit comparatively thin, so that the true relations of the beds are uncertain, and their enumeration is in all probability quite incomplete. This is emphasized by the fact that pebbles of quartz, like those from the quartz drifts of Otago, occur in other parts of the basin, but they were not noticed in the series given above.

About 200 ft. higher in elevation there is another outlier of uncertain size, consisting of several seams of coal. This has a pitchy lustre, conchoidal fracture, blackish-brown colour, and contains numerous pieces of ambrite. Several of the seams are 2 ft. in thickness, and may be more. They are interstratified with carbonaceous shales, and lie on green sandy clays, which in turn lie on greywacke. The whole thickness of the beds is at least 100 ft., and may be much more, as the surface is masked by debris. The strike is north-east, and the dip north-west about 35°. It was just below this occurrence that the fragment of rock was found showing the sculpture of Monotis. The greywacke here strikes north-west.

These two patches are evidently the remnants of a much larger deposit which filled a considerable part of the cirque, the great size of which is evidently due to the fact that it was an area of easily eroded beds. The remnant is a very small one, and is rapidly disappearing. This observation is confirmed by the experience of Mr. Pringle, who accompanied us on our visit to the spot and stated that since he last saw it, some twenty years ago, the floor of the basin had completely changed and a great deal of the beds containing coal had disappeared. In the great snow winter of 1895 he had packed down half a ton of this coal for use at the Lilybank Station when supplies were short owing to the break in communication, and he said that it burnt excellently. If it were not in such a remote locality no doubt the deposit would have been used up long ago.

On both sides of the Macaulay between this and the lake are extensive deposits of brownish gravels antedating the glaciation. The pebbles are chiefly greywacke, but quartz is also an occasional constituent, although no quartz-bearing rocks are now found in the locality. These are evidently remnants of a much more widely extended sheet which has been swept away by glaciation.

In none of these occurrences of Tertiary sediments were any marine fossils found which might definitely prove that the beds themselves were of marine origin. They resemble very closely the deposits described by McKay (1882, p. 62) as occurring in the lower part of the Mackenzie country near Lake Ohau and in the Wharekuri basin, and classified by him as “Pareora,” or of Lower Miocene age. As far as the deposits at Wharekuri are concerned, considerable doubt has been thrown on McKay's account by both Park (1905, p. 499) and Marshall (1915, p. 380)—which is unfortunate, seeing that the Wharekuri basin is in the same river-valley as the Mackenzie basin, and the explanation of the origin of one might support that of the other. However, the deposits laid down in the basins of Central Otago, as described by Hutton (1875, p. 64) and Park (1906, pp. 15–19, and 1908, pp. 31–33), are so similar that a common origin is suggested. Hutton (loc. cit., p. 64) notes the similarity of the Otago deposits to those at Lake Ohau, and thus incidentally confirms the resemblance of the Tekapo beds to those of Central Otago. He classifies the latter as of Pliocene age.

There is thus a possibility that the beds occurring in the Tekapo district are of Pliocene age, though it is possible that the age of the Otago lacustrine (so called) beds has not been definitely determined up to the present, and that this opinion may have to be revised.

McKay was correct in suggesting (1884, p. 62) that considerable areas of his Pareora gravels and clays underlay the moraine which covered a considerable area of the plains, seeing that remnants of this deposit have now been located near their upper margin. Up to the present the valley of the Tasmai River has yielded no positive evidence of the existence of these beds, but the character of the slopes about Braemar is such that similar Tertiaries might be located beneath them.

There is thus direct evidence of the structural origin of the basin, apart from that suggested by its form; but the special point left to consider is the date at which it took on this form—that is, whether it antedates or postdates the time of deposition of the beds contained therein.

Hutton (1875, p. 64) was firmly convinced that the areas were basin-shaped before the deposits were laid down in them—that is, they were of pre-Pliocene origin—just as he maintained that the Canterbury intermounts were pre-Tertiary (1885, p. 91). In this he was followed by McKay (1884, pp. 76–81) and by Park (1905, p. 523; 1906, p. 9; 1908, pp. 17 et seq.), who restated his position in his Geology of New Zealand (1910, pp. 141–44). The latter evidently dates the formation of his block-mountain system of Otago and the Wharekuri basin to pre-Pliocene times, although he gives in numerous places instances of the beds concerned having been involved in faults and other deformations which may well have originated or have been attendant features of the formation of the basins.

On the other hand, Marshall (1915, pp. 380–81) has expressed the opinion that some of the basins, such as that at Wharekuri, were formed after the deposition of the Tertiary sediments, and that the landscape as it now exists has no resemblance whatsoever to the form of the surface when deposition was going on. This opinion has been strongly supported by Cotton (1916, pp. 316–17, and 1917, pp. 249 et seq.), who points out that the evidence for the basins being filled with lacustrine sediments is extremely slight, and that they were subjected to deformational movements after deposition, and that the dominant surface-features result from the faulting-down of blocks covered with a non-resistant veneer of Tertiary sediments which were preserved in the low-lying basins resulting from this faulting, whereas on the higher elevations it was completely or almost completely removed by erosive agents. In this paper, too, he endorses the statement that the upper course of the Waitaki River occupies a broad tectonic depression, and apparently accepts Kitson and Thiele's explanation of its origin, although this conflicts somewhat with his explanation of the origin of the basins of Central Otago.

The most important piece of geological evidence, apart from the physio-graphical, is that furnished by the character of the deposits themselves. There is a widespread absence of coarse sediments in the basal beds of the basin—sediments suggesting a mature topography and the absence of high land in the vicinity of the area of deposit; and if this contention is correct the landscape must have been entirely different from what it is now. It is inconceivable that sediments could have been laid down in basin-shaped hollows as at present existing without, in some parts of the area, coarse conglomerates forming an important element in the lower members of the series. Again, the presence of numerous quartz pebbles in conglomerates like those in the Macaulay Valley, evidently strangers to the district, cannot be easily explained unless the drainage directions were considerably different at the time of deposition from what they are at present. These geological features are not explained on the hypothesis that the “lake-basins” were formed before they were loaded up with sediments.

Again, the height at which these sediments occur in the Tekapo region is most striking. In Coal River they are 3,500 ft. above sea-level, and in Stony Creek 4,200 ft.—that is, 2,700 ft. above the floor of the lake. These deposits, especially the latter, could not have been deposited were the form of the Mackenzie basin at all like that at present existing. If the basin had been filled up to this level it would imply the removal of an enormous amount of material by glacier erosion subsequent to deposition, and this amount is too great to have been removed without leaving more than two slight traces of its former presence in the Tekapo area, even if we grant that glaciers have great powers of erosion. Some remnants other than those would be present, tucked away in some sheltered corner of the mountains out of the line of action of the ice-flood. If warping be called in to modify the form of the basin this argument falls to the ground. It is remarkable, however, that the remnants occur in a region where the mountains are highest.

If due regard be paid to the character of the deposits it will be evident that the Mackenzie country looks rather to Otago for its nearest relatives, though similar areas occur farther north in Canterbury. In these, limestones are a dominant geological feature; whereas in Otago they are almost absent, the occurrence of patches like that at Bob's Cove, on Lake Wakatipu, being quite exceptional. The occasional occurrence of marine shells, however, shows that the sea extended over the area. The presence of conglomerates at the close of the cycle of deposition indicates that fairly high land was in existence at that time; and, as similar gravels are found closing the Tertiary sequence over a great extent of country to the east (e.g., the Kowai^* series of North Canterbury) and to the west of the Alps, as described in various bulletins of the Geological Survey, it is reasonable to think that the movements which resulted in the final formation of the Alps commenced towards the close of the Pliocene period and continued into the Pleistocene, and therefore that the intermounts date from that time. The final form of the landscape resulted largely from the influence of glaciation on the structural features then formed.

Little evidence of the direction of the axes of deformation is afforded by the Tekapo district. There is nothing to support the contention of Edward Dobson that the orientation of the valley of the Godley was initially determined by tectonic movements, although I came across nothing against it. The axis of the valley, however, seems to correspond with the general strike of the greywackes and associated rocks.

The latest observed deformational movements that the district experienced are on north-east and south-west lines. The strike of the coalbeds in Stony Creek, and also the fault-line which bounds the occurrence in Coal River, have this direction. From the limited and unsatisfactory nature of the exposures in the latter locality the general strike of the beds cannot be accurately determined, but the even and regular slope of the northwest side of the Richmond Range suggests that it corresponds with some fault-line; and, further, if such a line be granted to exist, and its direction

The glaciated knobs of the Central Plateau of France that he notes later on hardly come into this category, but on page 288 he refers to rocky knobs seen in abundance about Ambleside and along the ridge separating Thirlmere from St. John's Vale, in the County of Cumberland, in England. In this paper he everywhere emphasizes the potency of glacier erosion, especially in valleys.

In a subsequent paper (1905, pp. 4–5) he again refers to knobs: “The knobs and ledges may be taken to be so-many unfinished pieces of work, which would have been more completely scoured away had the glacial action lasted longer.” This point he again emphasized in a paper on “American Studies on Glacial Erosion” (1910, p. 423), and refers to it slightly in the discussion on his account of the glacial features of North Wales (1909), and also in an answer to a question on glacial knobs addressed to him by M. Allorge.

This is a summary of Professor Davis's position as far as I can see from the literature at my disposal. It will be noted, however, that nowhere in the papers I have cited has he illustrated his point by showing the various stages by which a spur actually develops into a field of knobs; and this is somewhat surprising, as the method would be one entirely in keeping with the way in which he so frequently presents a physiographic problem.

I have examined other authorities, such as Hobbs and de Martonne, and find that faceting is everywhere recognized, but no other forms are noted. In the report of the Harriman Expedition to Alaska, G. K Gilbert deals exhaustively with the origin of hanging valleys and faceted spurs, but says little or nothing of any other of the various stages of modification However, I have examined the maps and illustrations and can see little evidence of intermediate forms, with the possible exception in the case of Nunatak Glacier (p. 59, and map), where the Nunatak appears to be a detached knob or end of a reduced spur.

Since there is this absence of statements concerning intermediate forms, I have attempted to supply some evidence as to their occurrence which I have come across during years of intimate acquaintance with the alpine region of the South Island of New Zealand. Incidentally this will be found to support Davis's contention that fields of knobs in the floor of a glaciated valley represent the remnants of spur-ends.

The main effect of ice-action on valley-spurs is due to abrasion, although no doubt plucking is very important at times, and especially in its more mature stages, when the spur-ends have become faceted At this stage, too, the excavating-power of a glacier has a dominating influence on the resulting landscape-form. But the depth of the ice, its velocity, and the time to which the surface has been subject to its action all exert important influences; and, further, the direction in which the tributary valley meets the main valley also controls to some extent in its initial stages the result of ice-action on the spur-ends.

As its dominating influences are those of thickness, velocity, and time, the modification of valleys, and therefore of the spurs running into them, will be different in different parts of the valley, being more pronounced in the upper portions, owing to the fact that these agencies are there at their maximum. Those parts of the valley where the ice is thickest, its velocity greatest, are just those parts which have experienced its action for longest time, and therefore modifications will be carried further than in the lower reaches. It will follow also that the character of the pre-glacial topography will be most easily arrived at by a study at the fringe of the glaciated district,

where the action has not been intense, owing to the thinness of the ice and the shortness of the period during which the area has been covered. Also, there will be a progression of phenomena, varying in intensity on moving from the outskirts of the glaciated area; and phenomena characterizing the areas where glaciation has been intense, inexplicable in themselves, may be elucidated from the intervening regions where glaciation has been intermediate in its intensity.

The region of the South Island whence most of the instances to be mentioned later are drawn had reached a submature stage in the cycle of erosion before the incidence of the glaciation. Valleys had been cut in an elevated area, and a well-developed stream-system had been established with long spurs trailing down into the main valleys; but the district was one of alpine character, with peaks approaching in elevation, if not exceeding, the present European Alps.

A most interesting case illustrating the nature of the slight modification to which spurs may be subjected on the outskirts of a glaciated area is furnished by Lake Manapouri. The chief complex of spurs entering the basin occupied by the lake reaches down from the north, the spurs running in a north-and-south direction, whereas the direction of the chief ice-stream was from the west, and in its passage eastward it cut across the long trailing ridges of the pre-glacial land-surface. Erosion was most marked in the western reaches of the lake, where the ice was thickest and had acted for a longer time, so that a great trough or hollow was formed, with precipitous sides carried far down below the present surface of the lake (depth 1,458 ft.). Not all of this is to be credited to excavation by glacier-action, but some portion to the damming-back of the water by the morainic bar of the combined Te Anau and Manapouri glaciers. While the ice has profoundly modified the western portion of the lake and removed the spurs of the pre-glacial valley-system, the change in the eastern spurs has been slight, merely cutting them into a series of notches placed one below the other down the backbone of the ridge, all with the same characteristic profile, and continued down to lake-level, where exactly the same landscape-form is reproduced in the islands that dot the lake. (See Plate VII, figs. 1 and 2.) These notches form a kind of stairway with the treads inclined backward so that the level of the tread is lower at the foot of the riser than on the edge of the tread (cf. glacial stairway in a valley). The spur has thus been little modified, so that its original form can be restored. The slight modification suggests that the ice, though deep, as is evidenced by the height up the spur to which the series of notches reaches, can have exerted its action for a comparatively short time or it would have produced a profounder impression. Although signs of ice-action are found some twenty miles to the east of these spurs, the period of advance must have been quite short, or the spurs would have been more profoundly modified. Traces of this peculiar landscape-form are to be found on all the spurs to the eastern end of Manapouri where they were likely to be exposed to the full force of the ice-flood, so that it can hardly have been an accidental feature. Still farther eastward the spurs are unmodified. In Plate VIII, fig. 1, which is a view of the lake looking west, there are also signs of the same form, with a more developed knob in the background.

The form of the modified spurs suggests another point. Judging from the shape of the islands which lie off the ends of the spurs, it is clear that before the ice-advance the spurs continued down below the present level of the lake. It therefore negatives the idea that the hollow in which the lake

now lies has been entirely due to glacial erosion. In my opinion, the hollow is primarily tectonic, but the surface so formed has been modified by stream-action, succeeded by glaciation, and that now a new cycle of stream erosion has commenced.

The form of the notches cut in these spurs is also characteristic of ice erosion, since glaciers always appear to exert their maximum erosive effect at the base of the valley-sides or shelves along which they move. Thus the notches have the backward slope which results from this mode of action. When this becomes more pronounced and ice-action has been more prolonged, the outstanding portions of the ridge tend to become rounded eminences. If a stairway was attacked further the notches would become a string of knobs, gradually getting higher as the spur is followed upwards. This stage of development is seen in the Waimakariri Valley to the west of the Cass River, where Mount Horrible and Mount Misery owe their rounded form to the great Waimakariri Glacier crossing a spur which runs parallel with the present Cass River and enters the main valley nearly at right angles. (Plate IX.)

The formation of a well-developed series of notches generally occurs where the spur has great length; but if it is shorter in the pre-glacial stage only one or two notches may be cut, and the resulting form becomes a semidetached knob or titan beehive noted by Andrews in the Sounds region. (Plate VIII, fig. 2.) This form is typically developed in the Upper Rakaia Valley at Mein's Knob and Jim's Knob, the latter being formed by the Ramsay Glacier passing over the terminal spur of the Butler Range. (Plate X, fig. 1.) Numerous illustrations in all stages of development can be seen in the Upper Waimakariri Valley, especially where the action of the main glacier has not been interfered with by the weight of the ice issuing from a tributary comparable in size to the main stream. When the tributary becomes large the modification of the spur is attributable chiefly to its action, and not to the erosion of the main stream.

From the slight difference in the form of the notches in the higher part of the series as compared with those at floor-level it is evident that all the notches were cut during one period of ice-advance. Had there been more than one ice-flood, reaching various levels, there would have been some difference in the form of the higher members of the series from that of the lower. As the lower members would have experienced more than one ice-flood, their stage of erosion would have been more mature. Also, if the ice had not reached so high in the later floods as in the earlier the exposed notches or knobs at higher levels would show more the effects of subaerial erosion, by rain, frost, &c. For example, if the first flood were the highest, then while the lower levels were being subsequently glaciated the higher and exposed levels would have been differentially modified by subaerial erosion, and glacial erosion of the lower slopes would have been carried to a more mature stage. If the last ice-flood had been the highest, the modification of the higher levels would have been different in that the glacial surface would have been juvenile, while the lower would have been mature. If an intermediate flood had been the highest, a differential modification partaking of both characters would have occurred, depending on the relative importance of the two phases. But the only difference—and that is a very slight one—is that which might have been expected in the lower parts of a glacier, where, under the influence of greater weight of ice, abrasion, plucking, sapping, and other glacial agencies are more intense.

The knobs of the Cass Range show very markedly the modifying effect of frost erosion, as their plant covering is of the scantiest—in marked contrast

to the forest-covered slopes near Manapouri; but it is noteworthy that erosion has reached a similar stage in each individual of the series of knobs, suggesting that they were all formed by the same ice-flood, as is the case of those near Manapouri.

The tact that the series of notches in these spurs has been cut all at the same time suggests that the shelves existing in valleys of the European Alps may, in some cases, have been cut during one period of ice-advance. These are referred to by de Martonne in his Géographie Physique (p. 641). After describing the shoulders which are so characteristic of these valleys, and the location of villages on them, he says, “Les replats multiples indiquent que l'érosion des vallées alpines est le résultat d'une série de phases d'érosion glaciaire et d'érosion fluviale alternantes, produisant un enfoncement progressif du thalweg et un encaissement de plus en plus grand de la vallée, malgré les efforts faits par le glacier pour reculer le pied du versant par sapement à chaque période glaciaire !” Although it is dangerous to express an opinion without having seen the locality, it seems possible that these flats and shoulders may—in some cases, at all events—have been formed at one glacial effort, like those at Manapouri.

An important factor which affects the resulting form of the spur-remnant is the angle at which the pre-glacial valley of the tributary meets that of the primary. It will be most convenient to take the simple case when they meet at right angles or nearly so. Good illustrations of this case are furnished by the Bealey and Hawdon Valleys at their junction with that of the Waimakariri. The two tributaries come in from the north, whereas the main stream runs from west to east. The tributary valleys are subequal in size, and the size of the glaciers issuing from them at the height of the glaciation, judging from the present cross-section of the valleys, would be about one-fourth of that of the main stream. As a result of the greater weight of the ice in the main valley, the tributaries were crowded over the shoulder of the spur on the down-stream side of the tributary, with the result that they have both a flattish shelf about 100 ft. above the present floor of the valley and about 200 yards in length, formed by the cutting-down of the end of the spur, so that it terminated in a kind of platform analogous to the wide shore-platforms sometimes seen off a point on a coast-line composed of moderately soft rocks. (See Plate X, fig. 2.) The two spur-ends are so similar in position, shape, and extent that they might easily be mistaken, and photographs taken from the opposite bank of the Waimakariri are almost interchangeable. The similarity in form is no doubt to be attributed to similarity in the conditions under which the spur-ends were reduced by the glaciers as erosive agents.

If erosion proceeds further the shelf is cut down near its proximal end, and the beehive form again results, but it is then flatter than that resulting from the passage of the main stream at right angles over a trailing spur.

If the tributary meets the principal valley at an angle greater than a right angle, as in the case of Harrison Arm and Milford Sound, or the Sinbad Valley with Milford Sound, then the form becomes accentuated. The formation, not of a shelf, but of the couchant-lion shape, takes place, but ultimately this must develop into the beehive form. This form is, of course, subject to profound abrasion, and is liable to be reduced by attack from both sides and also on top, so that it ultimately becomes a mere roche moutonnée, standing in the floor of a glacial trough, and apparently without genetic connection with the valley-sides. In most cases, however, such isolated rocks were once connected directly with the valley-sides, the

these ponds cover extensive areas of submerged ice lying in position, so that the precise location of the end of the ice is almost impossible. Nevertheless, the observations conclusively prove that there has been a marked retreat of the ice since 1914, and still more since 1909. In this account reference will be made to each of the pegs in turn, and the characteristics of the face in its vicinity recorded as accurately as possible; and for the purposes of ready comparison all measurements will be recorded in metres. As the general trend of the front of the glacier is approximately

east and west, the line in which measurements were made from the pegs was north and south, unless special reasons occurred for deviating from this direction. It should also be mentioned at this stage that the principal part of the Waiho River now runs from the eastern side of the glacier, and that lying in front of its western edge is a complex of roches moutonnées, evidently the remains of a spur of the pre-glacial valley, destroyed as described in a paper published elsewhere in this volume (see p. 47). The solid barrier presented by these rocks has no doubt caused the stream to discharge near the eastern side where the lip of the obstruction is lower.

The circumstances of the ice in the front of each peg will now be taken in turn, the chief features and points of interest being recorded on the map.

Peg No. 1.—This was placed on solid rock on the western side of the valley, but it is now covered with moraine, and its precise location is impossible without detailed survey. In 1909 the ice was 1 metre from the peg; it is now 279 metres distant, the measurement being made approximately parallel with the valley-wall to the point where the ice meets it. The face is here quite low, but immediately to the east the pool of water fronting the glacier commences, and the face is higher, sometimes overhanging; farther east the face again becomes low. The pool is about 60 metres broad on its western margin. The rapid retreat of this part of the face was mentioned in the records issued in 1914, as Mr. Graham then noted that the river had cut a wide gap between the ice and the western wall of the valley. The movement has apparently been much accelerated since the last observation.

Peg No. 2.—It was not found possible to determine the distance of the face from this peg in a satisfactory manner—first, on account of the pool, about 50 metres wide, fronting the glacier, and, secondly, because the ice in its retreat has exposed a large rock about 30 metres in height above the level of the water. The pool now washes the southern face of this rock. This rock was not exposed in 1914, so that its appearance and situation give some idea of the great distance the ice has retreated and the change in the condition of the face. (See Plate XII, fig. 1.)

Peg No. 3.—This is situated on Harper Rock. When originally placed the peg was at the ice-face. In 1912 it was 15 metres away, in 1914 it was 37 metres, and now it is 160 metres distant. The ice is fronted here by water 50 metres wide. (See Plate XII, fig. 1.)

The trend of the ice-front along the stretch just dealt with is slightly east of north, and running in a line with Strauchon Rock. Between Harper Rock and Park Rock another smaller rock has been exposed, and all three present a face towards the glacier not suggested by the map attached to Bell's account. The southern faces of all three are in approximate alignment, the direction running E. 30° S., and being determined by the dominant joint-planes traversing the schist of which the rocks are entirely composed. They all present a steep face to the south, and do not exhibit the effects of glacier erosion to a marked degree, there being a tendency to split both along the foliation-planes and also the joint-planes, so that any glacial smoothing originally existing has disappeared as the slabs have flaked off.

A low tongue of ice runs from the glacier into the pool (Plate XII, fig. 1), between the large new exposed rock in front of peg No. 2 and Park Rock, but ice occurs in position under the water of the pool, so that it extends farther forward at this part of the face than elsewhere. The end of this tongue is almost due west of peg No. 4, on Park Rock. The edge of the pool reaches the south-west side of the rock, but the pool narrows to a point, and there is a small stream issuing from it immediately to the west of Park Rock. The southern face of Park Rock is reached by the ice, but the rock has a much greater extent to the south-south-east and south-west than is suggested by Bell's map.

Peg No. 4.—This is on Park Rock. When originally placed it was surrounded by ice except to the northward. In 1912 the ice was 23 metres away, in 1914 it was 58 metres, whereas it is now 100 metres distant. The face is also low, but the upper layers show signs of being pushed over differentially. (See Plate XII, fig. 2.)

Opposite Strauchon and Barron Rocks there is a good expanse of water, and the edge of the ice reaching down into it is low and irregular, presenting embayments such as occur on a drowned coast-line, and no doubt the ice extends forward below water-level. For these reasons it was not considered advisable to measure the distance of the face from pegs Nos. 5 and 6, but the retreat from the line of the ice-front indicated on Bell's map certainly exceeds 160 metres, since the farthest exposed ice is at present almost due east of peg No. 4, on Park Rock. The whole of this portion of the face affords evidence of collapse, and the upper layers of ice show shear-planes and have evidently been pushed over the lower layers, an effect certainly due to differential movements; but whether this is to be attributed to the collapse of the glacier or to a definite thrust forward of the upper layers of ice is quite uncertain. This phenomenon seems to be more pronounced as Park Rock is approached. (See Plate XIII, fig. 1.)

By far the greatest volume of water issuing from the glacier runs out, of the north-east side of the pool which fronts the ice east of Park Rock, but a very considerable stream issues from close to the eastern side of the glacier and runs along between the ice and the wall of the valley for over 400 metres. In this part of the face the retreat has been most marked of all, as the measurements clearly show.

Peg No. 7 was initially placed 2 metres from the ice; by 1912 it was 14 metres away, by 1914 it was 24 metres, and now it is as much as 456 metres distant from the peg to where the ice abuts against the eastern valley-wall near river-level. The front is very high, over 20 metres in this section, and there is evidence of a small advance, since the ice is crowding over lichen-covered rock at the side. This advance may be of local character and therefore of little importance, but it may be symptomatic of a pronounced forward movement which is impending (See Plate XIII, fig. 2.)

It will be evident from the foregoing records that the minimum retreat of the face since 1909 has been 100 metres, and the maximum 456 metres, and after making all due allowance for the form of the face the average retreat of the front of the glacier is found to be approximately 180 metres.

As noted previously, there are evidences of approaching advance. A pulse indicating a marked rise in the ice is strongly developed about half a mile (800 metres) up the glacier, and the ice is pushing over the moss-covered glaciated rock-surfaces of the valley-walls at Roberts Point and Cape Defiance, still farther up. (Plate XIII, figs. 1, 2.) If the rate of movements of the glacier be that determined by Bell—viz., from 1 ft. to 2 ft. (0.3 to 0.6 metres) per day—this pulse should reach the terminal face in from three to five years. If the rate of movement is faster, as it probably is, the space of time will be correspondingly reduced, and it may be reduced still more as the oncoming wave affects the ice immediately in advance of it. A similar pulse is observed in the neighbouring Fox Glacier, and Mr. Graham intends to place a mark in a good position on the Chancellor Ridge near the glacier so that the rise of the ice-level may be correctly determined.

Mr. Graham has also made observations to arrive at the rate of flow. Selected morainic blocks lying on the surface of the ice below Roberts Point have shown an average movement of 3 ft. (1 metre approximately) per day during a period of 200 days, and it is likely that at the base of the first ice-fall the rate is much faster. Observations have been made since November, 1920, but the results are not yet available.

older epochs. The succeeding Permian was an epoch characterized by earth-movement, and the intrusion of granitic and dioritic magmas on a gigantic scale.

The Palaeozoic formations contain an abundant marine fauna that in many respects shows a curious resemblance to the contemporary faunas of Europe and North America; but of the Psilophytales—the rootless and leafless land-plants of pre-Devonian Europe—and of the prolific Carboniferous flora of the greater continents there is no trace in New Zealand. For an explanation of this we must look to the land-movements that brought about the great Devonian-Carboniferous hiatus. And this leads to the surmise that the ancient continent on the shores of which the Palaeozoic sediments of New Zealand were laid down had no direct land connection with the Palaeozoic land areas of the Northern Hemisphere—a surmise further strengthened by the absence of the typical Glossopteris flora of the hypothetical Gondwanaland of the South Pacific.

But to return to the New Zealand area. After the cessation of the Permian diastrophic movements already described, normal deposition continued without interruption throughout the Triassic and Jurassic epochs, the sediments being derived from the denudation of the ancient continent, which was now larger in area, having been augmented in size by the addition of the uplifted Palaeozoic rocks of the New Zealand area. The Mesozoic sediments consist mainly of alternating beds of deltaic sands and muds, in places intercalated with marine beds containing a rich assemblage of fossil molluscs that in general facies bears a striking resemblance to the contemporary Mesozoic marine faunas of Europe. It is noteworthy that, though beds of limestone are common in all the Palaeozoic formations no limestones occur among the Juro-Triassic strata of New Zealand. This circumstance may possibly be ascribed to the prevailing deltaic conditions of deposition, which, as we know, would not favour the growth of limestone-building organisms.

Up till the close of the Jurassic epoch New Zealand had not come into existence, but for a million centuries rocky materials had been accumulating on the site it was destined to occupy. The early Cretaceous witnessed the birth of the new land. At this time there began two syntaxial crustal movements that folded and ridged the Mesozoic and older rocks into great chains. Of these, the Rangitatan, a north-east and south-west movement, produced the main alpine chains, and the Hokonuian the northwest and south-east transverse chains. These movements built up and gave definite form to the framework of New Zealand as we now know it. They were accompanied by rock-shattering and faulting, and the extrusion of igneous magmas, mostly of basic and ultra-basic types. This period of intense crustal movement also brought about the foundering and submergence of the ancient continent that had existed in the south from Archaean times, shedding the materials of which the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic rocks were mainly composed. The disappearance of the parent continent was doubtless a consequence of the process of crustal adjustment, or compensation, arising from the emergence of New Zealand from the floor of the ocean.

The aphorism of Plato that a country is only as old as its mountains contains more than a grain of truth, and in the case of New Zealand is actually true. The mountain-chains came into existence in the early Cretaceous, and it was in that epoch that the real history of New Zealand as a geographical unit began.

The Cretaceous and Tertiary formations are marginal deposits mainly composed of materials derived from the wear-and-tear of the axial chains. The post-Albian history of New Zealand is a chronicle of denudation, submergence, uplift, faultings, vulcanicity, glaciation, and river erosion, all of which have taken an active part in modifying and shaping the topographical forms with which we are familiar.

In the early Cretaceous the foothills, transverse chains, and even the lower parts of the axial chains became worn down to a peneplain that bordered the coast on all sides. When the peneplain became submerged by the mid-Cretaceous transgression of the sea, the area of the dry land was correspondingly diminished. It is probable that the New Zealand of this period was represented by a long narrow island, or by a chain of islands, of moderate relief, deeply indented with bays and sounds, and drained by numerous small streams. The submerged peneplain was now a sea-floor, and on it accumulated the marginal pile of Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments, which as partially consolidated and elevated strata may now be seen fringing many parts of the sea-coast in both Islands, and as down-faulted blocks on the flanks of the alpine chains. When we speak of the marginal pile of Cretaceous and Tertiary strata we do not wish it to be inferred that deposition was continuous. As a matter of fact, we know that it was broken by a considerable hiatus in the early Eocene.

The Cenomanian transgression was preceded by the deposition of deltaic and estuarine silts and muds, on the emergent surface of which there grew a dense jungle vegetation. The vegetable remains were subsequently buried by the sediments laid down by the advancing sea, and afterwards formed the coal-seams of our Upper Cretaceous measures. The Upper Cretaceous strata constitute what is called the Waipara formation.

At the close of the Cretaceous there was a general uplift which lasted well into the Eocene. During this uplift the greater part of the newly formed Cretaceous sediments was removed by denudation, thereby uncovering the pre-Albian peneplain.

Towards the close of the Eocene there took place another transgression of the sea, which was preceded by the deposition of deltaic sediments on the surface of the recently uncovered peneplain. A jungle vegetation flourished for some time on the emergent deltaic flats. Afterwards the marine sediments laid down by the advancing Miocene sea covered and preserved the vegetable remains.

The late Cretaceous and older Tertiary movements were unaccompanied by crustal folding, and as a consequence the stratigraphical break between the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary formations is generally insignificant. But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, the close of the Cretaceous witnessed momentous faunal changes.

The Miocene coal-measures and the associated marine strata that cover them constitute the well-known Oamaruian formation.

In the central, or Cook Strait, area deposition continued uninterruptedly till the close of the Pliocene, but in the north Auckland region and in that part of the South Island lying to the south of the Trelissick Basin marine strata of Pliocene age are absent. So far as we know, the Tertiary succession of marine strata in the far north and south of New Zealand ended with the deposition of the Awamoan beds, of Upper Miocene age. The Awamoan is the closing member of the great Oamaruian formation as developed in north Auckland, south Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The abrupt

Our examination of the coast-line between Wanganui and the Waingongoro has now proceeded far enough to allow us to discuss various geological theories in the light of the facts that have so far been disclosed. We have now traversed the coast-line for nearly the whole distance of fifty miles, and the following opinions appear to us to be well established:—

(1.) The first of these opinions has to be supported from the palaeonto-logical, stratigraphical, and lithological facts that have been observed. From the palaeontological standpoint the evidence at first sight seems to be in favour of a decided break between the faunas of the two extremes—Castlecliff and Whakino. So greatly do the faunas in these two localities differ from one another that any geologist who saw the Castlecliff fauna at one time and that of Whakino—Waihi near Hawera at another, without examining any of the intermediate localities, would unhesitatingly come to the opinion that they represented different geological periods. It is, of course, true that several identical species occur in the two localities; but it is also true that the dominant species in the one locality are either absent from the fauna of the other or are there reduced to an insignificant proportion. Collections that have been made at intervening points, from two of which we have already published lists, show, however, a clear connection between the two divergent faunas. We have found no locality where the change in the faunas is so marked as to prove that there is a break in the palaeontological succession. The locality that we have found to be most suggestive of such a break is at a point three-quarters of a mile to the south of the Nukumaru boat-landing. Here we have found the last specimens of Melina zealandica, Lutraria solida, Cytherea enysi, Lucinida levifoliata, Mesodesma crassa, and Struthiolaria frazeri. These species, however, do not all disappear at the same horizon, but in a thickness of rock that measures about 100 ft. There is also the additional fact that the horizon in which all these species occur contains also as many as 76 per cent. of Recent species, and the fauna is clearly related in the most definite manner to that in the series of rocks that lies above it. For these reasons we do not regard this horizon as indicating in any sense a palaeontological break. On the other hand, there must be a most definite reason for the important faunal change which is so conspicuous at this horizon. It is our belief that this change is due to climatic conditions, or, at any rate, to a most important change in the temperature of the ocean-water which washed these shores at that time. The species that continued to exist after this time were, however, as varied, and indicate a temperature of sea-water at least as high as that of the present Cook Strait. We are inclined to think—though on this point there is room for much divergent opinion—that, on the one hand, the Waipipi series and the Whakino series contain a fauna that is, from the percentage of Recent species, and from the very nature of the fauna, perhaps equivalent to the Upper Miocene of Europe; but since it is probable that in an isolated country like New Zealand faunal change was relatively slow, it is undesirable, at the present time at least, to place much reliance

on any such correlation. On the other hand, the Castlecliff series contains a fauna with such a high percentage of Recent species that it is in all probability more or less equivalent to the Upper Pliocene of Europe. While we think that the extreme faunas show as great a difference as is indicated by these periods, we also think that, divergent as they are, a complete transition occurs in the strata between them from the one fauna to the other.

This opinion as to the continuity of the rock-series is also strongly supported by stratigraphical evidence, which may be summarized under three heads:—

(a.) We can nowhere find an important stratigraphical break in the line of cliffs, which is almost continuous throughout the distance. There is, of course, a great deal of irregularity in the stratification, due to tidal scour and to current-bedding, but the cause and nature of this is at once apparent. The only place where we have found anything more important is at a locality about two miles and a half to the north of Kai Iwi. In this place, as mentioned in a previous paper, there is clearly an old land-surface, which is indicated by a thin deposit of beach-worn pebbles, a layer of carbonaceous matter, strata penetrated by roots, and borings of littoral mollusca. On the other hand, this structure is not associated with any distinct change in the species of mollusca, and it must, in our opinion, be regarded as due to a merely temporary and local emergence of a coastline that was otherwise undergoing a submergence about as rapid as the accumulation of sediment for a long period of time.

(b.) We have found no sudden change of dip and strike that has extended through a thickness of more than 100 ft. of sediment. Throughout the strata that are exposed on the coast-line the strike and dip are remarkably constant. The strike swings round gradually from 85° at Castlecliff to 125° near Whakino, but, except for a few local variations, there is no sudden change. Perhaps the most marked of these sudden variations is that which occurs at the mouth of the Waipipi Stream, but in a few hundred yards along the beach the normal strike is restored.

(c.) Lithologically the sediments are very similar throughout. In those few localities where there are embedded pebbles they are always fragments of submetamorphic rocks of the nature of greywackes. Where the sediments are of a finer nature they are always bluish-grey in colour, and contain a great abundance of quartz and of muscovite mica. The lithological nature of this fine sediment is so similar throughout that there is little doubt that it has all been derived from one and the same source. This conclusion points to the probability that the sediments were all deposited while the areas of land and sea remained approximately the same, and consequently there is a presumption that all the sediments were deposited during the same geological period.

It may therefore be taken as a fact that palaeontological, stratigraphical, and lithological evidence alike support the belief that the series of rocks exposed on the coast-line between Wanganui and Hawera represents a period of continuous sedimentation which in New Zealand geology may be said to belong to the upper part of that great geological system which we, by somewhat extending the classification of Captain Hutton, have called the Oamaru system. We are of opinion that the Wanganui system must now be regarded as having lost its individuality, and that it must in future be looked upon as the upper strata of the great Oamaru system. We consider it possible that the period of deposition of these rocks extended

over the period that in Europe elapsed between the Upper Miocene and the Upper Pliocene, though we do not wish to insist upon this correlation. It appears to us that under the peculiar conditions in New Zealand which necessarily resulted from the prolonged isolation of this small land the rate of organic change, so far as it is shown in the marine mollusca, does not give a very satisfactory basis for the correlation of the New Zealand sediments with those of Europe, so far at least as the Tertiary rocks are concerned.

(2.) Climate: If it be accepted that the continuity of the strata in the Wanganui coast is as precise as has been described, it at once becomes evident that climatic conditions in New Zealand have been warm or mild during the whole period of time that was occupied in the deposition of the sediment. It has also been suggested that this lapse of time is more or less equivalent to the interval between the Upper Miocene and the Upper Pliocene in Europe. Whether this is the case or not, it may be taken as certain that the period called by Hutton the “older Pliocene” is comprehended in this interval. All who have studied New Zealand geology are aware that Hutton was of opinion that the great extension of the glaciers of New Zealand occurred during this Upper Pliocene. We hold that the evidence which we have been able to bring together shows conclusively that the climate of New Zealand during this Upper Pliocene period was at the least as genial as it is now, and that there can have been no glacial extension relative to the present sea-level during that period. There is, on the other hand, much evidence that the warm climate of the early Tertiary has become a good deal colder during the late Tertiary in this country. At least three genera which indicate warm conditions—Melina, Olivella, and Miltha—have now disappeared. In many other genera species of large size have been replaced by others of much smaller dimensions. Large species of Melina are at present restricted to the warmer tropical waters, and it may well be held that Olivella and the large species of Miltha indicate the prevalence of warm climatic conditions. This conclusion is enforced by the occurrence of large species of Cardium, Cytherea, Pecten, Ostrea, Paphia, Natica, and Dentalium. It becomes evident that climatic conditions in New Zealand between the Upper Pliocene and the Upper Miocene, so far as these periods can be judged by the nature of the marine mollusca now exposed on the cliffs of the north coast of Cook Strait, were never colder than now, and during the greater part of that time they were a great deal more genial. There is also evidence that during at least the earlier portion of this interval the climate was a great deal warmer than it is at the present day.

(3.) Change in fauna: We regard it as a fact that during the long period of time that is represented by these sediments there has been no sudden appearance of a new fauna. Everywhere the fauna contained in each separate stratum may reasonably be regarded as the lineal descendant of that in lower strata, though in each stratum there are perhaps a few species or genera that are found sparingly elsewhere. In no case, however, is there such a change as to justify the opinion that a foreign element has been introduced into the previous fauna. This idea of the continuity of the marine molluscan fauna of the younger Tertiary rocks of New Zealand may be carried a little further, for it is a fact that the fauna of the highest beds that are exposed differs but slightly from the marine molluscan fauna of the present day. It is certainly a fact that no additional foreign element distinguishes the Recent fauna from that which is contained in the Castlecliff beds.

It has frequently been remarked before by one of us when speaking of the molluscan fauna of the earlier portion of the Oamaru system—notably that of Target Gully—that it was distinctly richer than that of the present day. It is hardly correct to make this statement in speaking of any comparison between the fauna of the Waipipi series and that of the Castlecliff series. The fauna that has been collected from the former locality up to the present time is not very extensive, and it is notably wanting in the smaller species. These facts effectively prevent a complete comparison being made. It can, however, be safely said that, while the Castlecliff fauna contains a large number of species that are not found at Waipipi, most of these additional species have been found elsewhere in Tertiary rocks of greater age than those of the Waipipi series.

During the time that elapsed between the Waipipi and the Castlecliff periods of deposition, perhaps Upper Miocene to Upper Pliocene, a period elsewhere estimated as equal to a lapse of 690,000 years, an important change took place in the fauna. This change was not the result of the introduction or addition of new species or of new genera, but was due to the extinction of some genera which had been of importance up to the middle of the period, and of numerous species that had given a definite character to the earlier fauna.

As has already been remarked, the molluscan fauna of the Castlecliff series differs in few respects from the Recent fauna. It is probable that the difference is even less than a comparison of the lists would suggest, for the Castlecliff beds were deposited at a depth that approached 100 fathoms, and we have at present an incomplete knowledge of the fauna of the New Zealand sea-floor at that depth. Dredgings that were made outside the Great Barrier in 1904 brought to light several species that had previously been collected in the Castlecliff series, and had been thought to be extinct. From our work on the mollusca of the beds on the Wanganui coast-line we consider that we have a knowledge of at least the main features of the New Zealand marine mollusca from the Upper Miocene to the present day. Such a knowledge must shed an important light on theories that have been advanced in regard to the relations or land connections between New Zealand and other countries during this lapse of time. A number of eminent authorities have written on this subject, but at the present moment we wish to restrict ourselves to those who have made specific statements in regard to these land connections during the period with which we have dealt—namely, from the Upper Miocene to the present day. Hutton^* has definitely stated that during the older Pliocene New Zealand was in direct communication with New Gumea. The statement is based mainly on the occurrence of Diflodon aucklandicus in lignite-beds at the Dunstan, in Otago, a species which is said by Hutton to have its nearest ally in New Guinea. We consider it to be impossible that a continental extension of such a magnitude should have occurred without having the greatest effect on the molluscan fauna of New Zealand at that time, and of this we have not been able to find any trace. Marshall^† has stated that the great Pleistocene elevation connected New Zealand with some of the northern tropical islands, and provided also a shallow-water connection with Antarctica. This statement was based on older opinions of Hutton. It is sufficient

to say that a comparison of the mollusca of the Castlecliff beds with the Recent mollusca shows definitely that New Zealand did not at that time receive additions of any importance whatever to its marine molluscan fauna, and therefore that any extension of the area of New Zealand at that time did not in any way impair its isolation.

Park^* has stated that during the Pleistocene the area of New Zealand was many times greater than now, that the whole of the South Island and most of the North Island was glaciated, and in a map he shows the land extending to New Caledonia The general similarity between the fauna of the Castlecliff beds and the Recent fauna goes far to disprove the idea of glaciation of this district, while there is no evidence known to us, so far as the mollusca are concerned, that would show a Pleistocene extension of New Zealand to New Caledonia. Hutton in various other publications urged not only that New Zealand was greatly extended during the early Pliocene, but also that it was heavily glaciated at that time. It is probable that in the rock-series that we have described the Nukumaru series is about the age of the early Pliocene. In these beds we have at once a proof that this part of New Zealand was not elevated at that time, and we also have distinct proof that the climate was no colder, but was probably a good deal warmer than at the present day.

There are, however, clear proofs that New Zealand, or at least this part of the country, was considerably elevated at the close of the time of deposition of the Castlecliff beds. Two of these may be quoted. Artesian wells in the lower valley of the Wanganui River bed have reached a depth of 400 ft. without passing through the alluvial matter that the river has deposited. The valley of the Waingongoro River had a bed that extended to an unknown depth below the present sea-level, and had a width of about half a mile at the present beach-level. In addition to these facts, the strata of the series of rocks that has been described have all been elevated and eroded off to a uniform level before the next series of rocks was deposited. This upper rock-series rests in all cases unconformably on those that we have described, lying directly on the Whakino-Waihi beds in the extreme north of the district at which we have worked. The general occurrence of the sediments suggests that all the overlying beds were removed by erosion before these Pleistocene sediments were deposited. As to the precise age of this upper series of rocks we have at present no exact information. They frequently contain a large number of molluscan fossils at the base, but we have seen no extinct species of mollusca among them, and it is probable that they are approximately equivalent to the Pleistocene of Europe. Thomson has lately proposed to apply the name “Hawera series” to them. There is no particular objection to this, though the term “Pleistocene” has long been used in New Zealand, and it has not yet been shown that they are not a reasonable equivalent of the European Pleistocene.

It is perhaps advisable to recapitulate that after the Castlecliff series had been deposited there was a prolonged period of moderate elevation during which a great deal of erosion took place. Though this elevation was considerable, it was not great enough to bring the New Zealand area sufficiently close to any other country to allow of the introduction of any new features into the marine molluscan fauna of New Zealand.

The work that has been done in recent years on the fossil and Recent mollusca of New Zealand is now of sufficient amount and importance

to justify a consideration of the indications that they offer regarding the relations of New Zealand to other land areas in past time. It is evident that an accurate knowledge of the Recent fauna is of special importance when one is dealing with the main facts of the Tertiary geology of this country. Sir James Hector some forty years ago said, “An accurate knowledge of the affinities and distribution of the Recent shells of New Zealand is a very necessary element in the geological survey of this country.”^* The application of this principle is as essential now as it was then. Hutton, in the Introduction of his Manual of 1880,^† states that the better the fauna of New Zealand becomes known, the more prominently does it stand out as distinct from that of any other country, and this is particularly the case with its shells. Again, in his Introduction to the Index Faunae Novae Zealandiae,^‡ he summarizes the elements of our fauna, points out the affinities with other faunal regions, and applies the test of geological evidence to indicate the time of their appearance in our area and the probable source from which they were derived. Hutton's review of our fauna, however much we may differ from many of his conclusions, does most distinctly emphasize its ancient character and the long period of isolation that is needed to account for many of its peculiarities.

Palaeontology in New Zealand has within recent years made a very considerable advance, more especially in our knowledge of the earlier Tertiary faunas, though there is still a rich field for further research. Enough, however, is now known to simplify many of the difficult problems that beset Hutton in 1904.

At the first view it may appear that our molluscan fauna contains a very considerable Australian element. According to Suter^§ there are about 140 species common to both, a number that is about equal to one-eighth of the total species that he records. Recent investigations show that many of his determinations cannot be upheld, that others are very doubtful, and others again, such as Tonna, are really varietal and not strictly identical with the Australian species. But, admitting that there is a considerable number of species common to both, including the Cymatiidae, a group of large shells every New Zealand species of which occurs in Australian waters, it is not necessary to imagine a bridge across the Tasman Sea, or even to demand a close approach of the two land areas. The larvae of the marine mollusca are free-swimming creatures. In some species this stage in their life-history is brief, but in others it is of some length. Myriads of them are, of course, carried out to sea and perish, but when aided by ocean currents and other favourable conditions they are able to travel long distances. The southern portion of Australia, or at least Tasmania, may be said to lie in the region of the “roaring forties,” and the southern portion of the Tasman Sea is constantly swept for a portion of the year by hard and prolonged westerly gales, and with this aid from time to time some of the larvae would be certain to reach our shores. We might reasonably expect a larger and more important Australian element in our molluscan fauna than we actually have. It is obvious that very few of the species that survived the journey across the Tasman Sea would succeed in establishing themselves in the face of a new set of natural enemies, as well as changes in climatic and physical conditions. If the accession to our fauna had been

the result of a colonization across shallow water, or from a land close at hand, we should have expected to find a compact assembly, and not the more or less scattered fragments that are actually found.

Apart from the Australian element, the marine mollusca possess no characters suggestive of recent accessions from other faunal regions, for the Antarctic element is very largely a relic from older geological times.

The terrestrial and fresh-water mollusca require for their dispersal a close approach of lands, if not an actual land bridge. It is true that occasionally marine currents may bring some species to oceanic islands, but if these were introduced in some far-off period it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to be certain as to their origin.

Of the land mollusca which have been grouped under the Flammulinidae, Endodonta and Laoma comprise by far the greater number of our snails. They are ancient inhabitants and a primitive race. The geographic range of the group is almost world-wide, but palaeontology so far has found very little record of them. Pilsbry^* remarks that “the Carboniferous of Nova Scotia has afforded a small helicoid which in form and sculpture can only be compared with such Endodontidae as Pyramidula or Charopa.” In support of our belief in the great antiquity of these helicoids, it may be pointed out that a number of genera appear to have developed in our area and are restricted to it, and that no New Zealand species has been recorded from any other faunal region. Of other groups, the Athoracophoridae may perhaps have been developed in our region. The Rhytidae, which include our large carnivorous snails, are of very ancient lineage. The operculate group is in great measure peculiar to our fauna. Hedley^† remarks on this when he discussed the relation of the fauna and flora of Australia to that of New Zealand. Partly to account for the dispersal of Placostylus Hedley constructed his Melanesian Plateau.^‡ If that land area or archipelago be granted a great antiquity it would appear to provide all the necessary communications even for the most primitive forms.

The groups of fresh-water mollusca are in perfect accord with the land mollusca. Gundlackia, Potamopyrgus, Lymnaea, Isidora, and Melanopsis are all of ancient lineage, while Diplodon is recorded from our Cretaceous beds at the Malvern Hills. Hedley,^§ writing on the surviving refugees of ancient Antarctic life, discusses many interesting problems of distribution. He regards their advent as taking place by circuitous routes at wide intervals of time, and thinks that they are of great antiquity.

In our younger rocks the percentage of Recent species is very high, and in making comparisons between these we prefer to use the names of definite horizons where the species have actually been collected, rather than period-names, which may often involve incorrect correlation.

For the first of these we select the blue clays and sands of the coastal cliffs near Castlecliff. The fauna of these beds differs from the Recent fauna only in the presence of Ataxocerithium, and in the absence of a few obscure genera and a few groups whose habitat is between tide-level or in very shallow water. The total of extinct species is here not more than 7 per cent.

In the Kai Iwi beds, three-quarters of a mile south of the stream, the fauna presents no distinctive features from that at Castlecliff, except

perhaps a slightly higher percentage of extinct forms. Nukumaru beach, from the boat-landing to a point one mile to the south of it, has a fauna that shows a somewhat marked difference, not only in the greater percentage of extinct forms and in the occurrence of the genera Melina and Lutraria, but the assembly of species has changed notably. Some of the Recent species are in great abundance, others have distinctly decreased, and others are uniformly distributed; and in addition to this several are characterized by their unusually large size.

The Waipipi beds, from a quarter of a mile south of the stream to three miles to the north of it, show a still more marked change of fauna. In addition to the genera Melina and Lutraria, there are Crassatellites, Miltha, Cardium and Olivella, a difference in the assembly of Volutes, Dentalium, Pecten, and Struthiolaria. The abundance of the individuals of extinct species is somewhat pronounced as compared with the Recent, and the large species are in particular abundance.

The Whakino-Waihi beds, on the coast near Hawera, have a fauna closely similar to that of the Waipipi beds. The percentage of extinct species is only slightly greater, but there is a difference in the prominent species. Lutraria has not been found; Melina, Cardium, and Crassatellites are scarce, while Pecten, Natica and Dentalium, are in great abundance; Chione chiloensis is not uncommon. Of the Recent species, Atrina zelandica and Ostrea angasi are in great abundance.

It has already been pointed out that from Castlecliff to Waipipi there is an unbroken stratified series. We now extend that series to Waihi, and note that within its limits we see a most marked faunal change within a continuous series of deposits. Had it so happened that the beds that lie between the different horizons that are mentioned above had not been preserved, and that the several fragments had been so disturbed that stratigraphical evidence was practically valueless, palaeontology would then have been the only guide to their respective ages. It would have been evident that Castlecliff and Kai Iwi were essentially of the same age. The Nukumaru beds, on the other hand, might well have been regarded as a formation of a different period, and in the Waipipi strata the faunal change is so great that they would probably have been assigned a greater antiquity than they actually possess. On the other hand, the Whakino-Waihi beds are so similar in fauna to those at Waipipi that they would probably have been placed in the same horizon, whereas they are actually separated by several hundred feet of strata. The change in the fauna was slow between the Waihi-Whakino and Waipipi stages, and between the Kai Iwi and Castlecliff stages, but it was relatively rapid between the Waipipi and Nukumaru stages. This rapidity, we think, marks a great change in the physical or climatic conditions of the time.

It may fairly be claimed that there were no important accessions to the fauna during the Castlecliff to Whakino-Waihi period of deposition, for, as stated previously, the majority of the Recent genera are represented, and usually by Recent species, and the extinct species that occur in any abundance have already been recognized in earlier formations in New Zealand. Even genera such as Couthouyia, Ataxocerithium, and Melina occur at Target Gully, and a fragment of Miltha, perhaps similar to the Waipipi species, has been collected at Mount Donald.

While the Waihi beds are the lowest of the unbroken series of deposits on this coast, and while the palaeontology of the Tawhiti beds as recorded by Marshall, and the Ormond beds as recorded by Henderson and Ongley, indicate a fairly close relationship, we cannot claim that the one would

all the higher beds in this formation, plant-remains are abundant, though rarely in other than fragmentary form. Tree and fern trunks and large roots are abundant, more particularly two miles south of the Heads in a very thick bed of concretionary sandstone.

The following is roughly the sequence, in ascending order, of the beds as shown in the coast sections from south of the Huruwai Stream to the Waikato Heads. (See Plate XXI, fig. 2.)

Fig. 7.—Observed section north of Hanwai Creek. Height of section, 200 ft.; length, 100 yards. Mesozoics (strike 25° west of north, dip 35° to west) overlain by horizontal Notopleistocene beds.

Though the strike of the main axes of the folds is 30° west of north, it occasionally changes locally to north-and-south and east-and-west, for there is much local distortion, notably in the axis of the syncline where the Waimate Stream enters the Waikato River, about two miles above its mouth.

Minor faulting and some planation, probably by wave-action, occurred, and was followed by the deposition of a dark-greenish sandy bed containing many easily gathered marine fossils. Other similar but less fossiliferous beds follow, being interbedded with thin, hard, closely-jointed, more calcareous layers, the whole attaining a thickness of 130 ft. to 150 ft.^* They are called the “blue marls” or “Cardita beds” by Cox (1877), from the presence in them of “a large Cardita that cannot be distinguished from ‘Cardita planicostata’ of Europe [see Hector, 1877, p. viii], and are probably of Lower Eocene age.” They are correlated with what has been spoken of earlier in this paper as the tabular limestones of Pa Brown and other localities.

Fig. 9.—Observed section at South Head, Waikawau.

The exposures of the Notocene beds along Waiwiri Beach show some warping and frequent faulting on a small scale, with possibly a much more powerful fault at a point where the sea-cliffs are temporarily interrupted. (See fig. 10.)

Fig. 10.—Coast section along Waiwiri Beach (two miles).

The beds of Koruahine Bluff, at the south end of Waiwiri Beach, which could not be definitely correlated with others either north or south in this section owing to the rapid changes in the facies of the limestones, furnished numerous fossils, among which were abundant echinoids, a few brachiopods, several species of Pecten, and abundant Foraminifera, with occasional sharks' teeth. They are not like the fossils of the “Cardita beds,” which are prominent along Waiwiri Beach, but rather resemble those of the shelly bed at the Huruwai Stream and of the tabular limestone at Waikato South Head. These beds probably correlate with the warped and sea-planed beds of the syncline at the base of the Kawa section, for their fossil content is somewhat similar. Thomson has expressed the opinion after examining them that the brachiopods are typically Oamaruian.

Waitangi Bay Basalt.—A couple of miles to the north of Waiuku there occurs a basaltic lava-flow which can be traced along the bed of the Waitangi Stream. Elsewhere it is covered deeply in a ferruginous clay resulting from the decomposition of basalt, so that its extent could not be ascertained. At one time the rock was quarried for road-metal at Waitangi Bay, where the stream enters Waiuku Creek. Here it is coarsely columnar. Examined under the microscope this rock is seen to be quite similar to the basalts common round Auckland City. It consists of a holocrystalline, pilotaxitic groundmass of long feldspar laths and small gr